among the Greeks and Romans.-The crown under different names, as crown, tiara, mitre, and diadem, has been a badge of civil and ecclesiastical supremacy from remote antiquity. The mitre of the Jewish high priest and the radiate crowns upon coins of ancient Persian kings are examples. The Roman and Byzantine emperors wore crowns of various kinds, the diadem, a sort of fillet, becoming common after the time of Constantine. The imperial crown of Charlemagne, imitated from Byzan tine usage, was closed above like a cap, and terminated in a circle of gold. During the middle ages the emperors of Germany received 3 crowns: that of Germany, which was of silver, and was assumed at Aix la Chapelle; the crown of iron, which had formerly been peculiar to the Lombard kings, and was assumed at Pavia; and the imperial crown, which was received at Rome, and was surmounted by a mitre similar to that of bishops, but somewhat smaller. The crown of iron, though chiefly of gold, derived its name from an iron band which encircled it in the interior, and which was said to have been made from one of the nails which served in the crucifixion of Christ. It is still preserved in the cathedral of Monza, and is one of the crowns of the Austrian emperors, who are now masters of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. Napoleon wore it when he was crowned king of Italy at Milan. The kings of France of the 1st race wore a diadem of pearls in the form of a fillet; those of the 2d wore a double row of pearls; those of the 3d wore a circular band of gold enriched with precious stones. Philip of Valois introduced the 3 fleurs de lis about 1330. Francis I. returned to the crown of Charlemagne, arched over the head, in order not to leave this mark of superiority to Henry VIII. and Charles V.; and from that time this has continued to be the crown of France.-A fillet of pearls appears from coins to have been the most common crown of the Saxon kings of England. Stephen introduced the open crown with fleurs de lis, and Richard III. first placed the arched crown with crosses and fleurs de lis upon the great seal. The crown which, with slight variations, has been continued by succeeding sovereigns, was introduced by Henry VII. At present it is a circle of gold, adorned with pearls and precious stones, having alternately 4 crosses patée and 4 fleurs de lis; above these rise 4 arched diadems, which close under a mound and cross. The whole covers a velvet cap trimmed with ermine.-About the 10th century, when the feudal lords disputed the royal supremacy, all the ranks of the nobility assumed a sort of crown. (See CORONET.)-The popes have for many centuries worn a triple crown, which is designed to signify their ecclesiastical, civil, and judicial supremacy. It consists of a long cap or tiara of golden cloth, encircled by 3 coronets, one rising above the other, surmounted by a mound and cross of gold.

CROWN POINT, a township of Essex co.,

N. Y., on the W. shore of Lake Champlain, about 75 miles N. of Albany, and noted as the site of a famous fort, now in ruins.

CROYDON, a market town and parish of England, co. of Surrey, on the river Wandle, near Banstead downs, 10 m. S. of London, with which it communicates by the London and Brighton railway. A branch line also connects it with Epsom. Pop. of the town in 1851, 10,260. The houses are mostly well built, and the streets, the principal one of which is a mile long, are paved and lighted with gas. It has an elegant and capacious church of freestone, built in the 15th century, 2 modern churches, several chapels and schools, a hospital, an alms house richly endowed for the maintenance of 34 decayed housekeepers, a literary and scientific institution, a handsome town hall, a barrack, a gaol, breweries, bleacheries, and calico print works. The manor of Croydon (called in the Domesday book Cruie-dune, chalk hill), together with a royal palace, was given at the Norman conquest to Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, whose successors resided here for a long time. The palace has been gradually rebuilt since 1278, at which period it was in its original state, and the oldest portion now left is of the 14th century. In 1780 it was converted into a calico factory, which has since been abandoned. A girls' industrial school is taught in the old chapel. The manufactures of Croydon have been declining for several years.

CROYLAND, or CROWLAND, a town of Lincolnshire, England, at the confluence of the Welland with 2 smaller streams, 8 m. N. of Peterborough; pop. in 1851, 3,183. It is a place of much interest to antiquaries, partly for its curious triangular foot bridge, dating from the reign of Edward II., but chiefly on account of the ruins of a famous and magnificent abbey, a portion of which is still used as a church. This abbey was founded by Ethelbald, was several times destroyed, and rebuilt each time with greater splendor than before.

CRUCIBLE, a small vessel made of refractory materials for withstanding high temperatures, and used in metallurgic and chemical operations for containing substances to be melted. The name is said by some to have been given to them by the alchemists from the Latin crux, crucis, in consequence of their custom of marking them with the sign of the cross. Others derive it from the Latin crucio, to torment, because the contents, in the language of the same alchemists, were thus treated in the operations to which they were subjected. They are made in various forms and of different materials, according to the purposes required of them. The qualities they should possess are infusibility, capacity of bearing sudden changes of temperature without breaking, resistance to the chemical action of the substances fused in them, and a texture impermeable to liquids and gases. But substances which possess some of these qualities are deficient in others, and consequently they are differently made for dif

ferent uses; and when made of one material as the best to withstand the heat or the most economical, they are lined with another which better resists the chemical action of the substances to be operated upon. Charcoal being one of the most unalterable substances known, when protected from the action of the air, it was much used for crucibles by the old assayers; a piece of proper shape was merely hollowed out and bound round with wire. An improvement upon this is to line earthenware crucibles with charcoal, well selected, so as to be free from impurities, and after being pulverized passed through a very fine sieve, and made into a paste with water. This being thoroughly kneaded, the crucible, moistened by dipping it in water, is filled with the paste by ramming in small portions at a time with a wooden pestle. Out of this filling a cavity of proper size for the operation is excavated with a spatula, and its sides are well rubbed and smoothed with a glass or metallic rod. For many purposes these, called brasqued crucibles, are the best of all. The lining of charcoal strengthens the sides, so that they will not be liable to lose their shape by softening in the fire; the earthenware is protected by it from contact with the contents; and it is out of reach of the action of the air. Moreover, in reducing the oxides of the metals the charcoal affords the carbon required by the oxygen to disengage it from its metallic combinations, and convert it into the volatile form of carbonic acid gas.-The best earthenware or porous crucibles are made of the purest clays, such as consist only of alumina and silica. The texture depends upon the degree to which the materials are pulverized. The close Wedgwood crucibles are made of the best materials finely ground; but they do not withstand sudden changes of temperature so well as the coarser Hessian and English crucibles. The former, which have been long known as the cheapest and among the best clay crucibles, are made in the vicinity of Almerode, in Germany, of an aluminous clay, which is mixed with quartz sand. They are 3-sided at top and round below. Their composition, according to Berthier, is silica 70.9, alumina 24.8, oxide of iron 3.3, with traces of magnesia. They are remarkable for their refractory properties of withstanding sudden changes and high degrees of temperature. Small ones may even be heated to redness and thrown into cold water without breaking. They will soften, however, at the high heat of the furnaces in which they are used, and the coarseness of their material renders them very porous. Saltpetre and common salt, and other substances used as fluxes, are liable when fused to find their way through them. Porcelain or Wedgwood crucibles are more impervious to vapors and fluxes. The French crucibles of Beaufay are perhaps more refractory than the Hessian. They are made near Namur, of clay without additional mixture of sand; when moulded they are washed over with a thin coating of pure clay, prepared by pulverizing clay that has been baked. They

are of more dense material than other clay crucibles, and hence better resist the passage of fluxes. Their composition is, by the analysis of Berthier, silica 64.6, alumina 34.4, oxide of iron 1. The English or London crucibles are made of triangular or circular form, and have covers of the same material. The Cornish crucibles made for the use of the assayers of the copper ores in Cornwall are cylindrical, and resemble in their properties the Hessian. Stourbridge clay, the material of fire brick, is used for the manufacture of crucibles, mixed with half its weight of pulverized coke.-Blue pots, or black lead crucibles, as they are often incorrectly called, are made of the mineral graphite or plumbago, which is composed of carbon with 4 to 10 per cent. of iron. The substance is finely pulverized, mixed with a third or half its weight of clay, moulded into the pots, some of which are large enough to serve for assaying furnaces, and then baked. These are excellent crucibles for resisting changes of temperature, as well as the chemical action of their contents; but their higher cost limits their use to certain purposes only. They are used in melting cast steel in the large works where this is manufactured. They may be protected on the inside from the action of the oxides, which tend to remove the carbonaceous material, by a lining of clay or other substance. These are made of excellent quality in Boston and in Jersey City.-For different chemical operations crucibles are employed made of various metals. Those of platinum are in continual use in the operations connected with chemical analyses. But these, though they bear the highest temperature, are attacked by many substances which do not affect other metals, as silver particularly, and crucibles of this material are therefore required as occasional substitutes. Cast-iron crucibles are cheaply made, and are very serviceable in many assays of sulphurets especially. The iron itself serves to desulphurize the natural compound of this substance, as the carbon of the brasqued crucibles deoxidizes the oxides. Assays of galena may be rapidly made one after another in cast-iron crucibles, by introducing a portion mixed with twice and a half its weight of carbonate of soda and fusing; the galena is decomposed, and sulphuret of iron is produced at the expense of the crucible; the lead set free may be poured out, and a new portion instantly introduced, and thus the operation may be continued as long as the crucible lasts.

CRUCIFIX (Lat. crucifigo, to fix to a cross), a sculptured or carved representation of the Saviour attached to the cross. The simple cross was the earliest symbol of Christianity. The 6th oecumenical council (680) ordered that Christ should be represented according to his human features, rather than in the symbolical figure of the paschal lamb, and in the succeeding century the crucifix became common throughout the church. There are still preserved in a museum in Rome crucifixes which date from the 8th century. This image is used by few Protestants,

but is placed by Roman Catholics in churches and oratories, especially on altars, and is sometimes worn on the person.

CRUCIFIXION, a mode of punishment which existed among several ancient nations. Thucydides speaks of Inacus, an African king, who was crucified by the Egyptians. Polycrates suffered the same fate from the Persians, according to Herodotus. It was common among the Carthaginians. Alexander the Great made a most ferocious use of the cross after the capture of Tyre on the defenders of that city. King Tarquin the Proud is said to have been the first to cause executions in this way at Rome. The survivor of the 3 Horatii had been previously condemned to this punishment for the murder of his sister, but had been pardoned. It was an infamous punishment, applied especially to slaves, and hence termed by Tacitus servile supplicium. The cross was usually raised in some frequented place outside of the city. In Judæa this kind of execution was practised under the Romans. The crucifixion of the Saviour is a favorite subject with the great painters of the middle ages.

CRUCIGER, KASPAR, a German Protestant theologian, born at Leipsic in 1504, died at Wittenberg in 1548. He studied at Wittenberg, where he became connected with Luther, by whose favor he was appointed to the rectorate of Magdeburg in 1524. In 1528 he became professor of theology and court preacher at Wittenberg, in which offices he remained till his death. His services to the reformation consist chiefly in his having aided Luther in translating the Bible, and having taken part in the most important religious conferences of the time. His grandson, GEORG (1575-1637), was the instructor of Maurice of Hesse, and persuaded that prince to embrace the reformed doctrines. He was afterward professor of philosophy at Marburg, and in 1618 attended the council of Dort.

CRUDEN, ALEXANDER, author of the "Concordance" to the Bible, born in Aberdeen, Scotland, May 31, 1700, died in London, Nov. 1, 1770. He was educated at Mareschal college, and intended for the church, but was employed for 10 years as teacher. In 1732 he went to London, where he was engaged as corrector of the press by a publishing house, with which occupation he combined that of a bookseller, opening a small shop under the royal exchange. He had already commenced his "Concordance to the Holy Scriptures," which was completed and published in 1737, and dedicated to Queen Caroline, from whom he hoped for some substantial proof of royal munificence, a hope never realized; the queen died in 16 days after the presentation of the work. Cruden was afflicted with a peculiar mental malady, and 3 times in his life he was confined in a lunatic asylum-once soon after his departure from college, again immediately after the publication of his "Concordance," and a third time 15 years later in 1753.

CRUGER, JOHN HARRIS, commander of a corps of royalists in the war of the American

revolution, born in New York in 1738, died in London in 1807. In 1764 he was mayor of the city of New York and speaker of the colonial assembly. He was a member of the colonial convention called in the next year to resist the stamp act, and composed the declaration of rights. After the outbreak of the war he adhered, to the crown, held the commission of a lieutenant-colonel, and conducted in 1781 the gallant and successful defence of Fort Ninetysix, S. C., when it was besieged by Gen. Greene. His corps formed the British centre in the battle at Eutaw Springs.-His brother, HENRY CRUGER, born in New York in 1739, died in the same city, April 24, 1827, established himself in trade in Bristol, England, and in 1774 was elected to the British parliament, having Edmund Burke for his colleague. He advocated on all occasions a conciliatory course toward the Americans.

CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE, an English humorist, born in London in 1794. His father Isaac Cruikshank, and his elder brother Robert, were caricaturists and engravers, and he picked up a knowledge of the art from seeing them work. He was admitted a student of the royal academy under the superintendence of Fuseli; but finding the rooms uncomfortably crowded, he gladly accepted an offer from a publisher to illustrate juvenile books and make cheap caricatures. Cruikshank was an enthusiastic liberal, and the first objects of his satire were political. For several years, to use his own words, he "lived upon the great usurper Bonaparte." He soon became known as a clever political caricaturist, and was employed by a number of publishers; but the works which first gave him an extensive popularity were the illustrations to a series of squibs on the public and private life of the prince regent, published by Hone between 1819 and 1821, and entitled the "Political House that Jack built;" the "Matrimonial Ladder," and Non mi ricordo, in allusion to the marriage and trial of Queen Caroline; the "Man in the Moon," &c. The artist was most successful in the humor of his illustrations, and such was the excited feeling of the time and the cleverness of the satire, that some of the pamphlets reached a sale of 200,000 or 300,000 copies. After this Cruikshank abandoned political caricaturing, having first projected a work to illustrate the results of what was called "seeing life." The story, written by Pierce Egan, had an extraordinary sale in England and America, under the title of "Life in London;" but as the moral aim of the artist was entirely overlooked by the author, Cruikshank retired from the work before its completion. From 1824 until the present time Cruikshank has been almost incessantly engaged in illustrating books; a complete collection of which would exhibit a fertility of invention and humor, a dramatic power, and a technical excellence which have seldom been combined in one artist. So prolific, however, has been his pencil, that it is hardly possible to give a complete list of his

works; he himself has not prints of the whole of them. Among those which obtained the greatest popularity are "Points of Humor," "Mornings at Bow Street," Fielding's "Tom Thumb," ""John Gilpin," the "Epping Hunt," "Three Courses and a Dessert," "Sunday in London," which has a satirical humor not unworthy of Hogarth, Fielding's, Smollett's, Defoe's, and Scott's novels, "My Sketch Book," "Illustrations of Phrenology," "Illustrations of the Time," &c., &c. In 1835 he commenced the "Comic Almanac," which was for many years the vehicle of some of his happiest designs. He also illustrated Dickens's first work, "Sketches by Boz," and subsequently "Oliver Twist," which originally appeared in "Bentley's Miscellany," while under the control of Dickens. For the same magazine, after it came under the editorship of Ainsworth, he furnished the designs for "Jack Sheppard" and "Guy Fawkes," and upon the establishment of "Ainsworth's Magazine" illustrated several novels by Ainsworth which appeared there serially. He subsequently started a periodical of his own, called the "Omnibus," which was edited by the late Laman Blanchard. His illustrations of Maxwell's "History of the Irish Rebellion," published about this time, afford some happy specimens of his efforts in a serious style. In 1847 appeared "The Bottle" in a series of 8 prints, by many deemed the most important work of his life, and of which the germ can be traced in the "Gin Shop," the "Upas Tree," the "Gin Juggernaut," and others of his earlier works. The striking manner in which the evils of intemperance were depicted made the work immensely popular, and many thousand copies were sold at a shilling each. The artist subsequently published a sequel in which the career of the son and daughter of the drunkard was followed up. Since the publication of these prints Cruikshank has been a determined advocate of total abstinence from intoxicating drinks, and has done good service in that behalf with pen and pencil in his pamphlet, "The Glass." Of late years he has illustrated few noticeable books, but his etchings for the "Life of Sir John Falstaff," by Robert B. Brough, published in 1858, are executed with a delicacy and spirit worthy of his best years. At nearly 60 years of age Cruikshank again applied for admission as a student at the royal academy, and has latterly given much attention to oil painting. He contributes to the annual exhibitions in London, and in several of his pictures has shown great aptitude for this new branch of his art. Few artists of the present day have given more attention to etching, and his plates frequently present a vigor of touch and a breadth of chiaroscuro recalling the efforts of the old engravers. He has been much addicted to athletic sports, and from his dramatic abilities was selected as one of the actors in the amateur performances undertaken by Dickens and others in organizing the guild of literature and art.

ČRUIKSHANK, WILLIAM, a Scotch anatomist,

one of the medical attendants of Dr. Johnson in his last illness, born at Edinburgh in 1746, died in London, June 27, 1800. After having studied from 1764 to 1771 at Glasgow, he went to London with a letter of introduction to the cele brated William Hunter, who appointed him librarian, and afterward his assistant. After Dr. Hunter's death, he continued in concert with Dr. Baillie to preside over his school. His "Anatomy of the Absorbent Vessels," which appeared in 1786, attracted much attention among medical men in England and on the continent. In opposition to the views of Haller, he asserted that when portions of nerves are cut out of living animals they may be reproduced. His paper on this subject was published in the "Transactions" of the royal society for 1794. His memoir on the yellow fever, which toward the end of the 18th century prevailed in the United States, and especially in Philadelphia, was published in the latter city in 1798. He is the author of other medical writings, of which the most important are those on insensible perspiration.

CRUSADE (Port. cruzado), a Portuguese coin, either of gold or silver, named from the cross, and palm leaves arranged in the form of a cross, which figure upon it. The first crusades were struck off in 1457, on the publication of a bull by Pope Calixtus III. for a crusade against the Turks. The crusades are called old or new, according as they were struck before or since 1722, the former being valued at 400 rees (about 60 cents), and the latter at 480 rees.

CRUSADES (Fr. croisade), the name given to the expeditions by which the Christian nations of Europe, in the 11th, 12th, and 18th centuries, sought to recover Palestine from the Mussulmans. The Holy Land was among the early conquests of the Saracens, the caliph Omar having taken Jerusalem A. D. 637. Thus all the places most sacred in the eyes of Christians passed under the control of the votaries of a new religion; and though some of the Saracenic rulers were men of liberal ideas, and of liberal practices as well, and treated pilgrims humanely, others were of different character, and behaved tyrannically. The Abbassides were a superior race, and the most famous caliph of that line, Haroun al Rashid, sent the keys of Jerusalem to his great occidental contemporary, Charlemagne, which assured the safety of Christian visitors to that city. The holy sepulchre and the church of the resurrection were in the hands of the Christians; and the tribute exacted from the Christian inhabitants and pilgrims was small The Fatimite caliphs, who became masters of Jerusalem in the 10th century, pursued the liberal policy of the Abbassides until the time of Hakem, who was a fanatic, and persecuted the Christians, interfered with the pilgrims, and defaced the holy places. His conduct excited much indignation in the West, which abated when his successors returned to the wiser course of his predecessors. The church and the sepul chre assumed their former state, and pilgrimage became more common than ever, embracing

men of every condition, from great churchmen and nobles to peasants, and women of all ranks. The Fatimite or Egyptian caliphs, though they never again sought deliberately to put a stop to pilgrimage, did not always protect the pilgrims, who had much ill usage to complain of, and who made it known to all Christendom. When the Seljook Turks conquered Palestine, they inflicted all manner of atrocities on the Christian residents, and treated pilgrims with great indignity and cruelty. While the rage that this caused throughout Europe was at its height, the Byzantine emperor, Michael VII., fearing that the Turks would take his capital, sent an embassy to Gregory VII. entreating assistance. The pope addressed the rulers of the European states, urging war on the Turks, and foreshadowing the crusades. Again Alexis Comnenus sent a similar embassy to Urban II., when events were precipitated by the action of an obscure man. Peter the Hermit, who had become imbued with deep religious enthusiasm, was a monk, and by birth a Picard. Visiting Jerusalem, after having led the life of an anchoret, he was an eye-witness of the insults and cruelties of the Turks, and experienced some of them. He was soon possessed of the idea that he was to become the deliverer of the holy sepulchre, and told the patriarch of Jerusalem that he would cause the western nations to drive out the infidels. The patriarch gave him letters entreating aid, and Peter visited Urban II., who saw that he was an enthusiast, and not the less likely to move Christendom because of his austerity, vehemence, and humble condition. The pope encouraged him, and Peter departed to preach a crusade in Italy and France, which he did with such effect that all other business was neglected, and the minds of men of all degrees were most powerfully affected. Peter had an eloquence suited to his purpose, but he could have effected little if he had not found material on which to act. Christendom then had but little light, but it had much sincerity, and it felt the disgrace involved in allowing the Holy Land to remain in the hands of the Turks. Pilgrimages had become so common that they were made by companies of thousands; and their violent interruption was everywhere felt and resented. Human policy turned religious zeal to a useful purpose. Those statesmen who were capable of taking a broad view of affairs may have thought that there was great danger that the Mussulmans would come to the West if the Christians should not go to the East. The pope wished to bring the Byzantine empire into the Latin fold. He held a council at Piacenza, A. D. 1095, which was numerously attended, and at which the Byzantine envoys pleaded their country's cause. It was determined to hold a more general council, which met at Clermont, Nov. 1095, and where French, Germans, Italians, and others were present. The pope's eloquence was so effectual that the multitude exclaimed: "God wills it! God wills it!" when he declared the holy war was commanded

from on high. The pope suggested that those who entered on the enterprise should assume the cross on the shoulder or breast. This was agreed to, and the first clergyman who took it, from the hands of Urban II., was the bishop of Puy. The count of Toulouse was the first temporal prince who assumed the cross. The cross was originally red, but different colors were subsequently adopted by different nations. Every person who assumed the cross was known as a croisé, or crusader, whence the name of the enterprise. The crusading spirit spread over Britain and the northern nations, much inflamed by the decree passed at Clermont that whoso should go on the expedition should be regarded as having performed all penances. It was to be a pilgrimage on the largest scale, with the pilgrims armed. The spirit was shared by all classes, and by people of every description, including the worst criminals. The number that assumed the cross was almost incalculable. In the spring of 1096 a large body of the lower orders, under the lead of Peter the Hermit, began the march across Germany. They were compelled to divide, and the smaller party, led by a Burgundian knight, Walter the Penniless, going in advance, was annihilated in Bulgaria. The larger party suffered severely, and was guilty of great atrocities, but Peter brought the bulk of it to Constantinople, where he was joined by Walter. They were landed in Asia, where they were nearly all destroyed by the Turks, Peter having left them. A 3d division, consisting of Germans, was led by a monk named Godeschal, and was massacred in Hungary. A 4th, estimated at 200,000, and composed of various peoples, was led by some nobles, from Germany, but it was destroyed by the Hungarians, after having perpetrated terrible outrages. The real crusade was a very different undertaking from these rabble gatherings. No king joined it, but it was headed by a number of eminent feudal princes-Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of Brabant, Robert, duke of Normandy, Hugh, count of Vermandois, Raymond, count of Toulouse, the counts of Flanders and Chartres, Bohemond, prince of Tarento, Tancred, and others. Godfrey, who was one of the first characters of the age, is often mentioned as the leader of the crusading hosts, but he held no such position, though much was conceded to him. After many adventures, including contests with the Greeks, to whose emperor most of the chiefs took the oath of fealty, the crusaders were united in Asia Minor, where they besieged Nice, which surrendered to the Greeks. Their first great encounter with the Turks took place at Dorylæum, July 4, 1097, and, after a long doubtful contest, ended in their victory. Pursuing their march, thousands died of privation, and many more lost their horses. Had the Turks then vigorously assailed them, they would have been destroyed. Antioch was besieged, and taken after many months, but less through crusading valor than by the treachery of a citizen, June, 1098. Here the victors were besieged in their