turn by a great Mussulman army, gathered from different parts of the East, and which had failed to take Edessa, where Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, had established a principality. The crusaders were apparently on the eve of destruction, when they were saved by a revival of the enthusiastic spirit in which their undertaking had originated. It was declared that the steel head of the lance that pierced the Saviour was found under the altar of the church of St. Peter, and its possession was regarded as an assurance of that victory which the invaders won soon after, the Mussulman forces being destroyed or driven off. This victory was the consequence of dissensions among the Mussulmans. Months elapsed before the original purpose was resumed, and then but 21,500 soldiers marched upon Jerusalem, 1,500 only being mounted. Meeting with no resistance, they arrived before the holy city, which, though valiantly defended, fell into their hands after a siege that closed with an assault, and a massacre of almost unequalled atrocity. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen first head of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 1099. This event marks the completion of the first crusade, though the war between Christians and Mussulmans was continued, involving the destruction of new immense hosts of Germans, Italians, and French, under the duke of Bavaria and others. When Edessa fell into the hands of the Turks, 1145, Christendom was again aroused, and listened readily to the entreaties for assistance that came from the East. St. Bernard preached a second crusade in France, Germany, and elsewhere. Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Germany assumed the cross. The emperor led an immense force by the old route of Hungary and Bulgaria to Constantinople, meeting with the usual Greek treachery. He passed into Asia, but soon lost more than four-fifths of his army, which was betrayed by Greeks into the hands of the Turks. Conrad made his way to Nice, at the head of a small force, where he found Louis with his army. After a variety of adventures, in which the French were nearly destroyed, the emperor and king reached Palestine, and with the fragments of their armies, aided by the templars, hospitallers, and forces of the Latin kingdom, besieged Damascus, where they failed completely. The monarchs returned to Europe. For some years the Christians in Palestine defended themselves with success against the Mussulmans, but the rise of the celebrated Saladin to power in Egypt and Syria was fatal to their cause. Defeated in the battle of Hattin or Tiberias, 1187, they surrendered even Jerusalem to Saladin soon after that event. Tyre was the only place of any consequence which they retained. The news of the fall of Jerusalem caused much excitement in the West. A 3d crusade was resolved upon. The emperor of Germany, Frederic Barbarossa, and the kings of France and England, Philip Augustus and Henry II., took the cross. Numerous bands of Christians soon reached Palestine, and Acre was besieged by an immense host. Saladin aided the besieged from without, and this contest was waged for almost two years. The German emperor had organized a great army, better provided, disciplined, and led than any previous crusading force. This army marched by the usual overland route. In Asia Minor they defeated the Turks, but not without experiencing heavy losses. Frederic lost his life while attempting to cross the Calycadnus in Syria, after which little was done by his army, the relics of which finally reached Acre. Meantime, Richard I. of England (Henry having died in 1189) and Philip Augustus had arrived with their forces at Acre, which surrendered (1191), the crusaders, in violation of their word, butchering 5,000 Mussulmans who had been left in their hands as hostages. Philip Augustus soon withdrew from the crusades, alienated and disgusted by Richard's arrogance; but he left a portion of his army to aid that leader, who marched toward Jaffa, defeating Saladin on his way in a pitched battle. Jaffa was abandoned to him, but this was nearly the term of his crusading career. He wished to proceed immediately to Jerusalem, but was thwarted, and 2 months were lost. The crusaders then marched to Ramla, near Jerusalem, but were forced to fall back. The next year Richard resumed operations, and the city might have been taken if the enterprise had been vigorously pushed. Why it was not, is unknown. Richard retreated to the sea-coast. His last act was to relieve Jaffa, which Saladin had assailed. A truce was agreed to, on terms quite as favorable as the Christians could have expected, access to the holy places at Jerusalem being allowed by Saladin. Thus terminated the 3d crusade. The 4th was of an exceptional character. Intended though it was to injure the Mussulmans, probably it did more to enable the Turks to establish themselves permanently in Europe than any other event. An attempt made to preach a new crusade, after the expiration of the truce between Richard and Saladin, had little success out of Germany. From that country bands of nobles and others proceeded to Palestine, where they served to keep up the remains of the Latin kingdom, frequently defeating the Turks, but accomplishing nothing of consequence. In 1200, Innocent III., an able and aspiring pope, resolved to get up a new crusade. The eloquence of Foulques of Neuilly was employed to excite enthusiasm, and with considerable success. The 4th crusade was now commenced. It was mainly French in its character and composition. The counts of Champagne, Blois, and Flanders, and Simon de Montfort, were the principal leaders. The marquis of Montferrat, in Italy, acted with them, and was followed by many Italians. The crusading spirit extended to Germany and Hungary, in the latter country the king assuming the cross. The French crusaders despatched a deputation to Venice to make arrangements for the transportation of their forces to Palestine by sea. For a reasonable compensation the Venetians engaged to transport a large army; but when, in 1202, the crusaders assembled at Venice, they could not pay the sum named, whereupon it was agreed that they should, in lieu of money, aid the Venetians to subdue Zara in Dalmatia, which had revolted. This, though not under the command of their chief, the marquis of Montferrat, and in defiance of papal prohibition, they accomplished. The Venetians were commanded by the doge, Enrico Dandolo, then nearly blind, and 93 years old. Montferrat then joined them again. Here the combined forces entered into an agreement with Alexis, son of the deposed Byzantine emperor, Isaac Angelus, to restore the fallen monarch to his throne. The opposition of the pope to this singular undertaking had little effect. The expedition proceeded to Constantinople, which was taken, and Isaac Angelus and his son were raised to the throne. Soon, however, dissensions broke out between the parties to the alliance. The restored princes were compelled to fight their restorers, but against their will, and with no good to themselves; for the Greeks hated them, overthrew them, and placed another member of their family on the throne. Isaac died of terror, and Alexis was slain. The crusaders, affecting to be the champions of the dead princes, waged successful war with the new emperor, besieged and took Constantinople, which they pillaged, and established a Latin empire, the territory conquered being divided between the Venetians and their western associates. The ultimate effect of this crusade was to weaken the principal barrier against Mussulman progress westward, so that when the new Turkish power was established in Asia Minor it experienced but moderate resistance from the side of Byzantium. The 5th crusade, 1216, was the work of Innocent III., and was joined by Hungarians, Italians, Germans, English, and French. Andrew II., king of Hungary, led a large army to Palestine, and, in connection with the dukes of Austria and Bavaria, made one campaign, when he returned home. The Germans remained, and having been joined by others, they transferred the war to Egypt (1218). Damietta was besieged and taken, and the crusaders received large reënforcements from England, France, and Italy. The Mussulmans now offered Jerusalem, and even all Palestine, to the victors, on condition that they should leave Egypt, and most of them were for accepting terms so favorable, and which embraced all that the first crusades had been intended to gain. But the papal legate, and the templars and hospitallers, who were joined by the Italian leaders, were able to bring about the rejection of the offer. After a delay of months the crusaders advanced upon Cairo, but the expedition failed entirely, and they were glad to humble themselves before the sultan, who allowed them to leave the country. The pope, Honorius III., attributed the failure to the emperor Frederic II., who had not kept his crusading vow. It was not until 1228 that the emperor went to Palestine with a small force, he being then excommunicate, the effect of which was much to weaken his offensive power. Yet he did much, and made a treaty with the sultan, by which the Christians were to be allowed to visit Jerusalem freely, and Bethlehem, Nazareth, and other places were made over to them. He was permitted to visit the church of the sepulchre, from the altar of which he took the crown, and put it on his head: Thus the 5th crusade was brought to an honorable termination, and the emperor returned to Germany in 1229. The folly of the Christians soon led to the loss of all the good that Frederic had gained for them. They quarrelled, and some of the independent Mussulman rulers were thereby encouraged to refuse to be bound by the treaty, and were successful in their warfare. Again Europe was filled with complaints. A 6th crusade was proclaimed, but with no good result; and the sultan of Egypt, resolved to be beforehand with his enemies, entered Palestine, and drove the Christians from Jerusalem. Hereupon, the nobility in England and France, in 1238, resolved to go to the relief of Palestine. The French, under various leaders, arrived there first, and achieved some brilliant successes. These were followed by reverses and dissensions, and most of the French left the country. The English then arrived, headed by the earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry III., who was well received by all the Christians, whose affairs he completely reestablished. Jerusalem and most of the Latin kingdom were ceded to them, and numerous captives were released. Cornwall then departed, having effected a great service, and the 6th crusade, like the 5th, was brought to an honorable end in 1240. The 7th crusade grew out of that vast Mongol movement which terrified the world in the 13th century. The Kharizmian horde, flying before the Mongols, sought refuge in Egypt, but were persuaded by the sultan to attack Palestine. They entered that country, and, in 1242, stormed Jerusalem, perpetrating horrors equal to those which had marked its Christian conquest in 1099. Christians and Mussulmans were compelled to league against them, but they were crushed by the savages and their Egyptian allies. Acre became the refuge of the remnants of the Christians, and was the only place of importance left to the cross. The Kharizmians were soon destroyed or expelled by the Egyptians themselves, who now held Jerusalem. These events had the usual effect on Europe. At the council of Lyons (1245), a 7th crusade was proclaimed. It was chiefly to France and England that the efforts for forwarding it were confined; for though the king of Norway took the cross, he never drew his sword in its cause, and Germany and Italy were not in a state to afford any assistance. Louis IX. of France, known as St. Louis, was the leader. A large army was assembled at Cyprus, whence, after a long delay, it proceeded to Egypt. The English joined it there. At first, the crusaders were victorious. Damietta was taken, and they directed their steps to Cairo. Mansoura fell before them, but the rash behavior of some of the French leaders caused them to pay dearly for the victory. The Egyptians resisted bravely and skilfully. Communication between the invaders and Damietta, the base of their operations, was cut off. They were shut up in their camp, where sickness and famine thinned their number. Attempting to retreat, they were utterly routed, and the king and his brothers, with many nobles and knights, became captives. The rest of the army were slaughtered, 30,000 falling in all. The king and his companions were finally released, but not until they had experienced many dangers. Damietta was given up, and large sums were promised to the victors. Most of the survivors regarded the crusade as at an end, and departed from a land which had received them so roughly. Not so Louis, a man of great conscientiousness. He went to Acre, and determined to remain in Palestine. This resolution he maintained for 4 years, exerting himself strenuously for the Christian cause, fortifying several places, and preserving union among the Christians. Compelled by the condition of France to return there in 1254, his departure was followed by Christian dissensions. The templars and hospitallers made open war on each other. The Egyptians, having extended their power over the Syrian Mussulmans, now fell on the Christians. The war lasted for years, and was characterized by constantly occurring Christian reverses, in spite of the valor of the losing party, never more heroically displayed than in that dismal time. At length the Latin principality of Antioch fell in 1268, myriads of Christians being slain, or sold into slavery. Nothing was left but Acre. For the last time Europe was moved to serious exertion, and the 8th crusade was undertaken. Louis IX., undiscouraged by his Egyptian failure, assembled a large force, which sailed in 1270. He landed in northern Africa, near Tunis, influenced by a false report of the dey's conversion to Christianity, and the hope of securing him as an ally. He met with no firm resistance in the field, but the light troops of the Moors harassed the French exceedingly. Sickness raged in the invading ranks, and after crowds of brave soldiers and illustrious nobles had fallen, the king himself died. The French immediately gave up the crusade; but they had been joined by a band of English auxiliaries, headed by Prince Edward, afterward Edward I., and these immediately resolved to proceed to Palestine. Spending the winter in Sicily, they sailed for Acre in the spring of 1271, the last expedition of the kind that ever reached that place. The force was only 1,000 strong, but the name of Plantagenet was great in the East. Sultan Boudocdar, who had been so successful over the Christians, immediately retreated. Edward managed to asssemble 7,000 men, with which force he defeated a large Mussulman army, and then stormed Nazareth, which became the scene of a sweeping massacre. Here he was struck down by disease, and his followers died in great numbers. His life was attempted by an assassin. On his recovery, seeing that success could not be looked for, he concluded a truce of 10 years with the sultan, and departed for his own country; and so ended the last crusade, 177 years from the time the first had been preached. Gregory X. sought to evoke a 9th, but with no success. In 1289 Tripoli, on the Phoenician coast, the last fief of the kingdom of Jerusalem, was taken by Sultan Kelaoun. In 1291 the remnants of that kingdom fell into his hands without resistance, save Acre, which he besieged at the head of an overwhelming force. The greater part of the inhabitants withdrew, but the soldiers of the 3 military orders, and some others, defended it resolutely to the last. The city was stormed, and the defenders massacred, or sold into slavery; 60,000 are said to have been killed or taken, probably an exaggeration.-The most important works treating specially of the crusades are the Gesta Dei per Francos, sive Orientalium Expeditionum et Regni Francorum Hierosolymitani Historia, a variis Scriptoribus Litteris commendata, edente Jacobo Bongarsio (2 vols. fol., Hanover, 1611; this is a collection of the ancient histories of the crusades, the principal of which are also found, translated into French, in Guizot's Collection des mémoires relatifs à l'histoire de France); Mailly, Esprit des croisades (Paris, 1780); Choiseul Daillecourt, De l'influence des croisades sur l'état des peuples en Europe (Paris, 1810); Michaud, Histoire des croisades (Paris, 1813-'22); Heeren, an essay, Ueber den Einfluss der Kreuzzuge (Göttingen, 1803); Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzzüge (Leipsic, 1807-'32); Haken, Gemälde der Kreuzzüge (Frankfort, 1808-20); Sporschill, Geschichte der Kreuzzüge (Leipsic, 1843 et seq.); Navarrete, Dissertacion historica sobre la parte que tuvieron los Españoles en las guerras de ultramaro o de las cruzadas (Madrid, 1816); and also Mills's "History of the Crusades" (London, 1819), the latter volumes of Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," and Procter's "History of the Crusades" (London, 1854). CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JACOB, a popular Swedish author, born at Jönköping, March 11, 1795. He published 3 novels in 1821, which were followed in 1828 by a political work (Politiska äsigter), in which he eulogized what he termed the era of liberty, extending from 1719 to 1772. In concert with Hjerta he be came in the same year editor of an opposition political paper, but the two collaborators soon separated, each to found a journal of his own. Hjerta established the Aftonbladet, which still exists, advocating extreme democratic ideas, while Crusenstolpe became editor, in 1830, of the Fäderneslandet, in which he renounced the liberal principles which he had formerly maintained, and which ceased when the patronage of government was withdrawn from it in 1833. In 1834 appeared his Skildringar ur det inre af dagens historia, a piquant melange of truth and poetry on questions of social order, which passed through many editions; and subsequently he purchased the Tessin library, celebrated for its historical manuscripts, from which he took his materials for his Portefeuille (5 vols., 1837-'45), and for his Historisk tafla af Gustav IV. Adolph's forsta lefnadsar (1837). For one of his works, Ställningar och förhållanden, which reflected upon the government, he was imprisoned for 3 years, a condemnation that resulted in several violent riots. In 1840 appeared the 1st vol. of his most successful work, Morianen (6 vols., Stockholm, 1840-'44), a romantic description of the history of Sweden during the Holstein-Gottorp dynasty. This, as well as many of his subsequent novels, has been translated into German. CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST, a German theologian and philosopher, born at Leuna, near Merseburg, Jan. 10, 1715, died in Leipsic, Oct. 18, 1775. He was educated at Leipsic, where he was professor of theology at the time of his death. He was among the principal opponents of the reigning philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolf, which he challenged at once in the name of reason and faith, asserting its incompatibility with Christian dogmas; and he sought to establish a new philosophical scheme which should be perfectly orthodox. Philosophy is in his view the whole body of rational truths, whose objects are eternal, and is divided into logic, metaphysics, and disciplinary or practical philosophy. He subordinated the scholastic principle of contradiction to that of conceptibility (Gedenkbarkeit), founded logic upon psychology, attributed to the soul fundamental faculties and a liberty almost as complete as that of the Deity, and made the certainty of human knowledge consist in an inward constraint and inclination of the understanding, the guarantee of the truthfulness of which exists in the divine veracity. These views are Cartesian; and in regarding time and space not as substances but as modes of the divine existence Crusius approached the theories of Clarke and Newton. His doctrines found many adherents, and were especially combated by Plattner. Though arbitrary hypotheses and mystical views are mingled with them, they are the product of acute thought, and were esteemed by Kant among the happiest attempts that had been made in philosophy. The most important of his publications are: Entwurf der nothwendigen Vernunftwahrheiten (Leipsic, 1745); Logik, oder weg zur Gewissheit und Zuverlässigkeit der menschlichen Erkenntniss (Leipsic, 1747); and Anleitung über natürliche Begebenheiten ordentlich und vorsichtig zu denken (Leipsic, 1774). CRUSTACEA. The name μaλaкоoтpaka was given by Aristotle to the soft-shelled aquatic animals, as the lobsters, crabs, shrimps, &c., to distinguish this group from the harder shelled animals, which he called oσrpakodepμa, or testacea-the mollusca of our present system of arrangement. In this system the crustacea conVOL. VI.-8 stitute one of the classes of the primary division articulata of the animal kingdom, and the term malacostraca has been retained for one great section of the class, while another is called the entomostraca, or shelled insects. The subdivisions of these sections are variously presented by different authorities. Those of the malacostraca, as given by Milne-Edwards, are generally adopted. They are as follows: I. Eyes on peduncles, and movable. Orders Decapoda. Brachyours, short-tailed-as crabs. Macroura, long-tailed-as lobsters, shrimps, &c. Stomapoda. Phyllopoda-as apus, &c. Cladocera-as daphnia, &c. Copepoda-as cyclops, &c. Ostrapoda-as cypris, &c. walking. ENTOMOSTRACA PROPER. HAUSTELLATA (suctorial crustaceans). Aranciformes-extremities long and slender, adapted for Siphonostomata-extremities not adapted for walking. Lernaiformes-extremities rudimentary. The crustacea are furnished with organs of respiration fitted, unlike those of the other articulata, for use beneath the surface of the water; and they are provided with a shell which is either a horny tegument, as in the case of the shrimp, or a calcareous crust, as in the lobster-not stony like those of the mollusca. It is in fact an external articulated skeleton secreted from their own bodies, and periodically thrown off and renewed by the growth of a new shell. In casting its shield the animal is said to first pine away and become smaller, until at last it readily slips out of its covering. Lobsters have been known, when captured, to effect their escape by thus slipping out and leaving their shell in the hands of the astonished fisherman. Sometimes when caught they voluntarily cast off a limb by which they are held, and which they often can very well spare, having always at least 4 pairs beside a pair of claws. In some genera they are so numerous that the animals approximate to the myriopoda. A lost limb too is replaced, gaining in growth at each moulting, while the body is unconfined. These organs, with those of respiration, and the tail also, are supported by the body; the antennæ or feelers, eyes, and mouth belong to the head. The organs of sight and touch are remarkably well developed; and it is not a little interesting to find in those very ancient representatives of this class, the trilobites, whose period of existence was as remote as that of the formation of the older silurian rocks, the same peculiarities and perfection in the structure of the eye as are seen in the highly complicated organization of that of the fly and the butterfly of the present day. The organs of hearing, it is thought, may be detected in some of the genera of the decapoda, and the habits of many of the crustacea seem to imply the possession of the sense of smell. The shelly covering corresponds in its protuberances and depressions to the form of the important organs of the body within. The progressive motion of the animals is sometimes by walking, sometimes sidewise, backward, or forward-by climbing, as seen in their progress over the weeds and rocks at the bottom of the water-by swimming, and also by leaping. The lobster, clumsy as he appears, and loaded with his heavy claws, is often seen to dart backward by suddenly flapping his tail toward the thorax, throwing himself a distance of more than 20 feet with the swiftness of a bird or a dolphin. By the perfection of his sight he can dart like a mouse directly into his hole, scarcely large enough to admit his body. The young shrimps on the ebb of the tide are often seen along the shallow margin of the water, as observed by Paley in his "Natural Theology," skipping into the air in such numbers that they resemble a cloud or thick mist hanging over the edge of the water to the height of half a yard. The trilobites were fitted by their organization for swimming just beneath the surface of the water, and with the back downward. Like the crustacean insect, the wood-louse, they possessed the faculty of rolling themselves into a ball as a defence against attack from above. The crustacea are found for the most part in salt water; some species, however, live in lakes and rivers, and a few upon the land. Some of them are of considerable size, the largest being the lobsters; but for the most part they are very small. The salt water is almost filled with varieties of them so minute that they are rarely observed, and it is said that a portion taken up at random will always be found to contain a number of them. Numerous species furnish food for man, and all are preyed upon by the inhabitants of the deep. Some species of the whale subsist upon minute crustacea drawn in swarms into their huge mouths, and caught in the fibrous web that lines them, while the water is ejected. Many of the terrestrial crustacea, as the land crabs, are said to visit the sea periodically to deposit their spawn. They burrow also in the mud and in damp places, and their gills are always moist. The oniscus, or wood-louse, has no such arrangement of the gills, and is consequently confined to damp places. Some species of the anomoura or hermit crabs, known also as soldier crabs, are found living in the sea, and others upon the land. Their singular habits are noticed in the article CRAB. The entomostraca are mostly fresh-water insects, many of them microscopic. They subsist upon animalcules and microscopic plants. In their progress from the egg to maturity some of them, as the cyclops, undergo curious transformations. Some live in salt water, and one species, the branchipus stagnalis, called also the brine worm, lives in the concentrated solutions of salt, such as those of the brine pans of salt works, which contain 2 lbs. of salt to a gallon of water. This active little shrimp is thought by the workmen to contribute to the purity of the brine. Some, like the freshwater cyclops, sustain intense cold without injury, being sometimes frozen into the ice, and coming out on its melting as active as ever. Many are parasites, as the lerneas, and are classed by themselves by some naturalists, with the name epizoa. The lerneonemia monilaris infests the head of the sprat, attaching itself near the eye. It is luminous in the dark, and the fishermen say that a shoal of sprats is of ten headed by those thus infested, which they call lantern sprats. The cod also, and other large fish of our deep waters, have their parasitical crustacea. The limuli, or king crabs, or "horse-shoes," common upon our coast, are placed by Milne-Edwards in a sub-class, which he calls xiphosura. It differs from the other genera by having no organs for conveying food to the mouth. The name is from έipos, a sword, with reference to the long, pointed, spear-like appendage usually called the tail. This is used by the natives of the Moluccas to point their weapons. A buckler entirely hides from view the limbs and organs of the animal as he moves along upon the sand, or in the water upon the bottom. They are found as fossils in the strata of the coal and Jura formations of Europe.-The crustacea furnish a great number of species that are much esteemed as food by man, as the lobsters, crabs, shrimp, prawn, &c., and the business of capturing them is extensively pursued along the shores where they abound. Lobsters and crabs are caught in pots, or traps of basket work, made like the wire mouse-trap with conical openings that admit the entrance but not the exit of the animals. These are sunk upon the ledges of rock along the coast, after being baited with refuse fish, each trap having one end of a line attached to it while the other is fastened to a floating buoy. The fishermen visit the traps daily, draw them up, and taking out the animals, sink them again. mense quantities are caught on the coasts of Norway and Scotland for the English markets, where they are carried alive, being kept in perforated "cars" like small boats, sunk to the level of the surface of the water, the same as are used by our fishermen. The northern markets of this country are supplied with lobsters from Massachusetts bay, about 200,000 being taken annually. They have been caught weighing 28 lbs., but the average size is about 4 lbs. On being thrown into boiling water, the natural black or dark color of the shell is changed into red by the solution of the bluish black pigment diffused through the tegument, and the substitution of a red-colored oil, which is insoluble in water. Lobsters are commonly boiled before they are offered in the market, though it is customary in some places to sell them alive to insure their freshness. They are kept many days by having the gills always moistened. Crabs are taken nearer the shore than lobsters, and many of those which live upon the land are Im |
