sphenograms; also the fundamental traits of the Assyrio-Babylonian system (1856); but his attempts fall very short of the mark in respect of both these objects. Barrois indulges his imagination both on sphenograms and hieroglyphs, and strenuously endeavors to write out the law tablets of Moses in arrow-heads.-The Assyrian, Babylonian, and Elymæan systems and languages still wait for an Edipus to solve their riddles. It is certain that from time immemorial 3 peoples of different characters and languages were living in close contact and in various relations as to political power, in the countries where sphenography was practised. These 3 groups of nations are the Semitic, Aryan or Iranian, and the Turanian (Aniranian, Scythic, Tartaric, or Allophylic of various writers). Westergaard distinguishes 5 styles of sphenograms, viz.: the Babylonian, Assyrian, and the 3 on the Achæmenian monuments. Rawlinson assumes that there are 5 Assyrio-Babylonian styles, viz.: the primitive Babylonian, Achæmeno-Babylonian, Medo-Assyrian (at Van, Layard's earlier Assyrian), Assyrian (Layard's later Assyrian), and Elymaan or Susianian. Of these the Assyrian of Nimroud is, however, more ancient than the Babylonian, which is rather elongated and hence apparently derived from the former. The styles of Khorsabad and Kuyunjik are less ancient than that of the northwestern palace at Nimroud. Botta, Stern, and others attribute many of the variations to provincial and calligraphic causes. As to their configuration, the Babylonian sphenograms are most complicated, the Persian the most simple and of the latest date, having probably ended with the overthrow of the Achæmenian empire by Alexander. The vertical cunei prevail in the Persian, while the other languages abound in the horizontal. There the words are divided at the end of the lines; not so in others, which exhibit the Semitic mode, by carrying the cunei sometimes even over to the back of the slabs. In the Assyrian the wedges have 4 directions, often crossing each other, and the names of persons, God, countries, &c., are preceded by determinative monograms. The Babylonian cunei lie in 8 directions, and every epigraph on bricks begins with a star-like figure of 4 wedges crossing each other; it has also parallel angles inserted within others, and opening downward and rightward; also many dagger-like lines. Of this style, Rich distinguishes 3 species. Rawlinson thinks that the following list contains all the Persian epigraphs: 1, Morier's on the 4 broken pilasters at Murgab, near Pasagardæ, N. E. of Persepolis, containing "I, Kurush, king Achæmenian;" 2, that at Persepolis, on the palace of Darius, twice over the doors; 3 and 4, on 2 slabs, enumerating nations; 5, at Alvand; 6, at Naksh-i-Rustam, near Persepolis, on the rock-sepulchre of Darius, containing more names of conquered nations than that of Behistun; 7, one of about 60 lines, of which Westergaard copied but 2, containing probably moral and religious precepts; 8, near Suez: "Darius, king great;" 9, that on the windows of the palace of VOL. VI.-10

this king, in 18 places, all trilingual; 10, that of Behistun; 11, 3 only on Babylonian cylinders: "I, Darius, king." All these, except the first, are of Darius; the 8 now following are of Xerxes: 1, at Alvand, a single line, perhaps on a road-mark; 2 to 5, on various parts of his palace; 6, at Van, probably engraved on his return from Europe, copied by Schulz, and more completely by E. Boré, in 1828, a Babylonian transcript; 7, on the palace of Darius, at Persepolis, stating: "My father built this house," &c.; 8, Darius, trilingual, on the vase of Caylus, where the hieroglyphs show the phonesis: Khshayarsha naga wazarka. No sphenograms of Artaxerxes Longimanus or of Artaxerxes Mnemon have yet been found. The 2 of Artaxerxes Ochus exhibit barbarisms; they are: 1, on the staircase of the terrace of the palace of Darius, relating his descent from Arshama and Vishtáspahya, &c., and invoking the blessing of Ormuzd; 2, the legend in Babylonized orthography: Ardakhchashcha naga wazarka, "Artaxerxes, king great,' upon an Egyptian vase, in hieroglyphs and the 3 Achæmenian species, preserved in the treasury of St. Mark's, at Venice. The most recent of all known sphenograms, with mixed characters, is that of Tarku, which Burnouf attributes to one of the 30 Arsacidæ, kings of Parthia (250 B. C. to A. D. 226). Herodotus mentions 2 pillars of Darius on the Bosporus, erected while he was assailing the Scythians, with the names of the nations in his army; the one in Greek, the other in Assyrian.-Rawlinson's Behistun inscription consists of 44 great Persian columns and 11 detached pieces, embracing as much of the language as had been previously discovered from all other monuments put together. The 5 columns of the so-called Median are partly mutilated, and the Babylonian version is only on 4 columns. This document is inscribed upon the sacred rock on the W. frontiers of Media, on the high road from Babylonia eastward. The hill of Bagistane (God's place), rising abruptly from the plain to a vertical height of about 1,700 feet, was most fit for a memento of the deeds of Darius, immediately after he ascended the throne. It informs the world, that while occupied in the reform of the national faith, an insurrection was easily checked in Susiana; that soon afterward a pretended son of Nabonidus of the house of Nabonassar was conquered in Babylon; that a league between Media, Assyria, and Armenia was defeated with great difficulty by himself in person; and that several other insurrections, especially a most dangerous one in Persia, raised by another pseudo Smerdis, had been suppressed. When probably on the road to Babylon to quell a new rebellion, and he heard of its being put down, he engraved his thanksgiving to Ormuzd on this sacred spot, in the 5th year of his reign (516 B. C.). The incision is about 300 feet from the base of the rock; and its inaccessibility preserved it from the iconoclastic fury of Islam. For extent, beauty of execution, uniformity, and correctness, this in

scription is perhaps unequalled, the Persian being superior to any engraving even at Persepolis, the Median equally admirable. A coating of silicious varnish is yet visible on the tablet, where it has not fallen off from the limestone, which is softer than this covering. Darius begins by proclaiming his genealogy and titles in the following strain: Adam Darayavush, khshayathiya vazarka, khshayathiya khshayathiyanām, khshāyathiya Pärsiya, khshayathiya dahyaunām, Vishtäspahya putra, Arshamahya napa, Hakhamanishiya. Regularly translated into Latin, which language admits the inflections of the original, this is: Ego Darius, rex magnus, rex regum, rex Persia, rex gentium, Hystaspis filius, Arsamis nepos, Achæmenius. Some defective Persian passages are restorable from both versions or from either, and vice versa. All other paragraphs or specific proclamations begin thus: Thatiya Darayavush khshayathiya (Prædicat Darius rex). The 6th of the 1st column enumerates, after the heading, the provinces of his empire, thus: Imā dahyāva tyā manā patiyāisha, vashna Auramazdāha adamshām khshāyathiya aham (Ecce regiones quibus ego potitus; gratia Ormuzdi ego factus rex sum): Pārsa, Uvaja, Babirush, Athura, Arabaya, Mudraya, tyiya darayahya, Saparda, Yuna, Máda (restored from the Scythic Ma-pata), Katapatuka, Parthva, Zaraka, Hariva,' Uvārazmiya, Bakhtarish, Suguda, Gadāra, Saka, Thatagush, Hara 'uratish, Maka, fraharvam dahyava XXIII(Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Misra [Egyptus], quæ maritima, Saparda, Ionia, Media, Cappadocia, Parthia, Zarangia, Arya, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, Gandaria, Saco, Sattagydia, Arachosia, Mecia, simul provincie XXIII). J. Oppert, one of the latest investigators of Babylonian and other kindred antiquities, published in 1857 the translation of the inscription on the sepulchre of Darius I. at Naksh-i-Rustam. He believes it to be next in importance to that of Behistun; and he calls the first version of the Persian text Medo-Scythic, and the second Assyrian. It runs thus: Baga vazarka Auramazdá hya imâm bumim adá hya avam asmánam adá hya martiyam adá hya Siyatim adá martiyahya hya Darayavum khsáyathiyam akunaus aivam paruvnăm khshayathiyam aivam paruvnám framátáram, &c.; in Latin: Deus magnus Ormazdes, qui hanc terram creavit, qui istud cælum fecit, qui hominem fecit, qui imperium dedit homini, qui Darium regem con stituit unum multorum regem, unum multorum imperatorem, &c. Next follow his titles and genealogy, and the names of his provinces, viz.: Mada, Uvaza, Parthaca, Haraiva, Bakhtris, Sugda, Uvarazmis, Zaranka, Harauvatis, Thatazus, Gāndāra, Hindus, Sakā humargā, Sakā tigrakhauda, Yauna Saka tyaiy paradaruya, Skudra Yauna, Putiya, Kusiya, Maciya, Karkā; in Latin: Media, Elymais, Parthia, Aryana, Bactria, Sogdiana, Chorasmia, Sarangia, Arachotis, Sattagydia, Gandaria, India, Scytha pastores, Scythæ sagittarii; qui trans mare: Scodri Iones crinibus plexis (European Greeks), Put, Cus,

Maxyes (Libyans), Carthago. Then follows a passage concerning the usurper Pseudo-Smerdis: Auramazda yathā avaina imám bumim yátum pasāva dim manā frābara mām khshāyathiyam akunaus, &c.; adam sim gáthará niyasādayam, &c.; in Latin: Ormazd quum vidisset hanc terram magicam (under the superstition of the Magi), tunc eam mihi tradidit, &c.; ego in rectum reposui, &c. Oppert agrees with Niebuhr and Heeren, in following Herodotus in the belief that the rebellion of Gaumata, recorded at Behistun, was that of Smerdis the Magian both as a national and religious, or Medo-Magian, leader. But Rawlinson and others contend that it was merely an attempt to substitute the rule of the priests for that of the warriors. Magism, as the religion of Turan, was opposed to the Mazdeism of the Aryan Persians and Medes. The latter was upheld by the Achæmenian dynasty, as a state religion, even after it had yielded to the former in Media. On account of the restoration of the temples and worship, after the overthrow of Gaumata, Darius was believed by some to have been contemporary with Zoroaster. The Achæmenida were one of the 13 tribes of the Pasagardæ. The families of the 6 conspirators, who had assisted Darius against the first rebel Magus, had the privilege of furnishing wives to the Achæmenians. There was no other nobility by birth in Persia.-The oldest Assyrian records are those of conquests. In the N. W. palace at Nimroud there are slabs, vases, &c., bearing the names of kings, an Egyptian cartouche, and the best sphenograms yet discovered. A second period shows still further traces of an intercourse of the empire with Egypt, as early as the 18th Egyptian dynasty. Egyptian monuments confirm this intercourse reciprocally, as shown by H. Brugsch (Geographie der Nachbarländer Aegyptens, Leipsic, 1858). The results of a thorough and unprejudiced comparison of the Assyrian monuments with those of Egypt, are likely to upset a great many theories on the races, politics, religion, industry, and fate of the early inhabitants of western Asia.-Among the numerous legends on Babylonian bricks, cylinders, &c., the standard one of Nebuchadnezzar is the most remarkable. It begins with his titles, continues with prayers to Merodach and Nebo, then records the wonders of Babylon, viz.: the great temple of Merodach (the mound of Babel is its tower), the Borsippa temple (Birs Nimroud), and other temples, and finally describes the city, thus: "The double enclosure which Nabopolassar, my father, had made, but not completed, I finished. With 2 long embankments of brick and mortar he bound its (Euphrates) bed, made a bridge, &c. The IrgarBel and the Nimiti-Bel-the great double wall of Babylon-I finished," &c. In this legend the names of many works at Babylon and Borsippa, mixed with invocations to the gods and wishes for the duration of various edifices, are mentioned in great detail. It may also be remarked that the bricks were mixed with chopped straw, and often glazed; that the walls built with them

were cemented with bitumen. No remains of columns occur, either at Babylon or at Nineveh. The bricks may have been public documents, or dedications to the gods; the cylinders may have been used instead of seals; in short, most of the points concerning these remains are yet involved in obscurity.-See also Thomas Maurice, "Observations on the Ruins of Babylon" (London, 1816); Obry d'Amiens, Revue du mémoire de Burnouf, &c. (Journal Asiatique, t. ii. 1836); Cullimore "On Oriental Cylinders London, 1842); Holzmann, Beiträge zur Erklärung persischer Keilschrift (Carlsruhe, 1845); "The History of Herodotus," by George Rawlinson, assisted by Sir Henry Rawlinson and Sir J.G. Wilkinson (London, 1858-'9).

CUNHA, TRISTAN DA, a Portuguese naval commander of the latter part of the 15th century. He figures in Camoëns' "Lusiad" as a discoverer of a group of islands, the most important of which continues to bear his name.

CUNHA MATTOS, RAYMUNDE JOSÉ DA, a Brazilian general, born Nov. 2, 1776, at Faro, in the Portuguese province of Algarve, died in March, 1840. He entered the Portuguese army in 1790, and served 3 years in the south of France, and 18 years in the island of St. Thomas, Africa; was then called to Rio de Janeiro, and afterward acted for some time as governor of St. Thomas. From the first he distinguished himself both as a soldier and as a writer on the countries through which he passed. In 1817 he returned to Brazil, and was appointed commander-in-chief of the artillery of Pernambuco, and subsequently military governor of the province of Goyaz. Here he collected valuable materials for a work upon the interior of Brazil, which was published in Rio de Janeiro in 1836. To this city he removed in 1826, on occasion of his election to the Brazilian legislative assembly. The military academy of Rio was placed under his direction in 1832, and shortly afterward he was promoted to the highest rank in the Brazilian army. He was secretary for life of the industrial aid society, and one of the founders and for several years vice-president of the historical society of Rio de Janeiro.

CUNHA BARBOSA, JANUARIO DA, a Brazilian prelate and statesman, born July 10, 1780, died Feb. 22, 1846. Brought up for the priesthood, he was for some time chaplain of John VI., and afterward professor of moral philosophy. In conjunction with Ledo he established (Dec. 15, 1821) a political journal at Rio de Janeiro, entitled Reverbero constitucional fluminense, in which he exerted a powerful influence upon the public mind in favor of Brazilian independence. After this had been declared, Cunha was at the instigation of his enemies arrested, Dec. 7, 1822, and banished to France. Two years afterward the government offered him a reparation for the injustice of which he had been the victim, by appointing him officer of the newly founded order of the Cruzeiro, and canon of the imperial chapel. In 1826 he took his seat in the first Brazilian legislative assem

bly as member for the province of Rio de Janeiro. The rest of his life was devoted to the political and intellectual development of Brazil. In concert with Gen. Cunha Mattos, he founded the historical and geographical society of Rio de Janeiro, and conducted the Revista trimensal, which recorded its proceedings. At the same time he was editor of the Diario do governo, a political journal favorable to the policy of the government, and of the Auxiliador da industria nacional, a paper devoted to the interests of agriculture and industry. These multitudinous journalistic labors did not interfere with his clerical duties, nor with the various trusts which devolved upon him as examiner of the synod, imperial historiographer, and director of the national library. He was just about to propose a comprehensive educational reform when he died. He left 2 small volumes of poems.

CUNIN-GRIDAINE, LAURENT, a French manufacturer, born at Sedan in 1778, rose to the position of minister of commerce in 1837. Apprenticed in early life to the extensive cloth manufactory of Gridaine and Bernard, he became the son-in-law and partner of M. Gridaine. In 1817 he was chosen to the chamber of deputies, where he afterward opposed the administration of Polignac. After the revolution of 1830 he became secretary and vice-president of the chamber, and officiated as minister of commerce almost uninterruptedly from 1837 to 1848.

CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER, a Scottish classical scholar, son of the minister of Cumnock, Ayrshire, died in 1730. The date of his birth is uncertain, as is also the place of his education, although circumstances indicate that he studied at Leyden and Utrecht, and defrayed the cost of his studies by acting as private tutor. By the interest of the Queensberry family, whom he had taught, he received from the crown the appointment of professor of civil law in the university of Edinburgh. In support of this office the Scottish parliament in 1698 voted £150 sterling annually for 10 years. The magistrates of the city, however, were jealous of the power assumed by the crown to nominate to professorships, and in 1710 they gave the place to another. Mr. Cunningham retired to the Hague, where he spent the rest of his days in philological pursuits. He enjoyed the friendship of Leibnitz, Le Clerc, and indeed of most of the scholars of the day. He published annotated editions of Horace, Virgil, and Esop. Some of his criticisms aroused a lively controversy with Dr. Bentley. His chief work, which he did not live to complete, was a critical digest of the Pandects of Justinian. He had also in contemplation a work on the evidences of Christianity.

Another man of celebrity, named ALEXANDER CUNNINGHAM, flourished at the same time. The two are often confounded. Both were Scotchmen, educated in Holland, the sons of clergymen; both were classical scholars, and, in their youth, tutors. The present Cunningham, a historian, was born at Ettrick in 1654, died in Lon

don about 1737. His pupils having introduced him into the upper circles of society, he returned from Holland to England in the suite of the prince of Orange. Subsequently he was George I.'s minister to Venice, from 1715 to 1720. Long after his death his Latin manuscripts fell into the hands of his relative, Dr. Hollingbery, archdeacon of Chichester; and in 1787 Dr. William Thomson published a translation, entitled the "History of Great Britain, from the Revolution in 1688 to the accession of George I."

CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN, a Scottish poet and miscellaneous writer, born at Blackwood, in Dumfriesshire, in 1785, died in London, Nov. 5, 1842. He was of humble parentage, his family, which had formerly been wealthy, having lost its patrimonial estate by taking the side of Montrose. He learned from his father a love for old Scottish tales and ballads, and was sent to school till his 12th year, when he was apprenticed to a stonemason. In his 18th year, having already written several poetical pieces, he sought the acquaintance of the Ettrick Shepherd, who has left in his "Reminiscences" a notice of him as at that time "a dark, ungainly youth, with a broadly frame for his age, and strongly marked manly features, the very model of Burns, and exactly such a man." Cromek, who had collected the poetical relics of Burns, having determined to gather the remains of Nithsdale and Galloway song, engaged Cunningham for an assistant, who furnished him materials sufficient for an octavo volume, which was published in 1810. It soon appeared that Cunningham was the original author of the most beautiful pieces in the collection. At the age of 25 he went to London, and during 4 years established a literary reputation by numerous contributions to periodicals, especially to the "London Magazine." At once a mason, poet, and journalist, in 1814 he was selected by the sculptor Chantrey to be his foreman and the confidential manager of his establishment, in which congenial_position he remained till the artist's death. To him Chantrey was indebted not only for many suggestions, but for numerous critiques in periodicals by which his reputation was extended. Though relieved from the necessity of depending on authorship, Cunningham continued a diligent and constantly improving writer. Some of his songs, with which his fame began, and upon which it will mainly rest, were declared by Sir Walter Scott to rival those of Burns. His various publications are: "Sir Marmaduke Maxwell" (1822), a wild drama founded upon border superstitions; several novels, often written with beauty and force, but distinguished by exaggerated ornament and extravagance of imagination, as "Paul Jones," "Sir Michael Scott," "Lord Roldan," and "Traditional Tales;" the "Life of Burns" (1834), and the "Life of Sir David Wilkie" (1843); the "Maid of Elvar," a poem; the "Songs of Scotland, Ancient and Modern, with Introduction and Notes" (1826), which contains many of his own best poems; the "Lives of the most emi

nent British Painters, Sculptors, and Architects" (1830), which was characterized by Prof. Wilson as "full of a fine and instructed enthusiasm;" and the literary illustrations to Major's "Cabinet Gallery of Pictures." His ballads and smaller poems are graceful, natural, airy, and eminently Scotch.-PETER, eldest son of the preceding, an English author, born in London, April 7, 1816. He was made clerk in the audit office by Sir Robert Peel at the age of 18, is one of the regular contributors to "Fraser's Magazine," and had the charge and arrangement of the works of art in the Manchester exhibition of 1857. He has written an excellent" Handbook of London," full of pleasant and curious local information, together with other interesting topographical works. He edited the poems of Drummond of Hawthornden (1833), and has edited the "Works of Goldsmith," and a new edition of "Johnson's Lives of the Poets," and is now (April, 1859) completing Croker's edition of Pope.

CUNNINGHAM, JOHN, a British poet, born in Dublin in 1729, died in 1773. He was the son of a wine merchant, adopted the stage as a profession, in which, however, he did not attain celebrity, although he was much respected, and wrote several small volumes of poetry, distinguished by pastoral simplicity and sweetness (London, 1766, 8vo. ; reprinted in the 14th vol. of Chambers's collection of the poets).

CUNOCEPHALI, or CYNOCEPHALI (Gr. KUWV, dog, and kepaλn, head), in the mythology of the Egyptians, a kind of dog-faced baboons, greatly venerated by them, and supposed to be endowed with wonderful powers. By the assistance of these animals they discovered the particular periods of the sun and moon, and it was said that half of the animal was often buried while the other half survived. The dog-head was a favorite symbol with the Egyptians. The god Anubis was represented in this manner, though the head of his image, as is rendered probable by modern researches, is that of a jackal. Cunocephali have also been found in India and elsewhere.

CUPEL, CUPELLATION. In the article ASSAYING the method of separating the unoxidizable metals gold and silver from the easily oxidized metal lead, by the process of cupellation, has been described. The cup-shaped vessels, called cupels, in which the melted alloy is exposed to a current of air playing upon its surface, are made of a paste formed of the ashes of burnt bones, mixed with water, to which a little glue may be added or not. This is kneaded into the form of a shallow cup, and dried not so rapidly that the paste shall crack. Cupels are manufactured on a large scale, to be used in separating silver and gold from lead, and from lead and copper; on a smaller scale, for use in the mints and assay office; and of very small size for blowpipe operations. The great cupels or tests used in large metallurgic operations are of oval form, 4 feet long and 23 feet on the smaller diameter. They are constructed within a hoop or frame

of -inch bar iron, 4 inches deep, with several wide cross bars arranged to form an open kind of floor, upon which the sifted bone ash, mixed with about its bulk of fern ashes or its weight of pearlash, is firmly rammed. In this a cavity is scooped out with a trowel about 24 inches deep, leaving a wall of bone ash 2 inches thick at top and 3 at bottom, one end only retaining 5 inches thickness-the bottom 1 inch. At the thick end or breast a segment of the bone ash is removed, leaving an opening between the cupel and the hoop. The whole piece is then set in a furnace, of which it forms the floor, and after being cautiously heated, the alloy, called rich lead, is poured into it. At the end opposite the breast the nozzle of a powerful blowing apparatus is placed, so as to direct a current of air over the surface of the melted metals. A portion of the litharge sinks into the cupel, and the remainder is blown across and falls through the opening in the breast into a vessel placed to catch it.

CUPICA, a village and seaport of New Granada, on a small bay of the same name, near the entrance to the bay of Panama; lat. 6° 40′ N., long. 77° 50' W. It has been proposed as the Pacific terminus of an interoceanic ship canal; its distance from the head of navigation on a branch of the Atrato river, which flows into the gulf of Darien, being only 17 miles.

CUPID (Lat. cupido, desire), called by the Greeks Eros, the god of love. In the earlier times of Grecian mythology Eros was one of the chief and oldest of the gods, and an important agent in the formation of the world, he having brought order out of chaos. But later he was the god of sensual love, and one of the youngest of the celestials. It is from this later Eros that we have our common idea of Cupid. He is the son of Venus; but the honor of his paternity is variously given to Mercury, Mars, and Jupiter. He is usually represented as a winged boy, with a bow and arrows; sometimes he is figured as blind, and he usually accompanies his mother Venus. He held sway over gods and men, and the great Jupiter himself was not secure from his attacks. He was very mischievous, and his wantonness furnished the later poets with the theme for many stories. He had sharp, golden arrows, to excite love, and blunt, leaden-headed darts, to inspire aversion in the breasts of his victims.

CUPPING, a method of local abstraction of blood, through small scarifications of the integument, by the assistance of bell-shaped glasses exhausted of air; when the object is merely to draw blood to a part, for purposes of revulsion, the exhausted glass is used without incision of the skin; the latter is called dry cupping. The old method of exhaustion was by burning a bit of paper, or a few drops of alcohol, in the interior of the glass, which was then immediately applied to the skin; a more convenient and certain exhaustion is now obtained by means of a small syringe attached to the cup; by the latter method the risk of burning

the patient is avoided, the locality may be carefully selected, and the pressure accurately graduated. Even for dry cupping it is well to apply heat to the skin, in order to render it more vascular. If, after the blood be drawn to the part by a dry cup, it be desirable to deplete the vessels, the skin may be cut by a bistoury or lancet, or by an instrument for the purpose, called a scarificator; this consists of a square box of brass, in which are mounted from 6 to 16 blades, which are set and discharged by a spring; the depth of the incision can be exactly regulated, and the action is so instantaneous that very little pain is felt. From these little wounds the pump draws into the glass from 1 to 5 oz., according to its size; after sufficient blood has been drawn, a piece of adhesive plaster is put on to close them and prevent suppuration. Dry cupping is of great utility in congestions of the brain and lungs, applied in the first case to the nape, shoulders, and arms, and in the second to the back and base of the chest; also in diseases of the eyes. The amount of blood taken by cups can be well measured; they are less disgusting than leeches, quite as effectual when they can be applied, and not liable to be followed by inflammation of the wounds; they are employed both after, and in place of, general bleeding. In pneumonia, pleurisy, and abdominal inflammations, and various local affections, they are applicable when venesection would be out of the question, and are generally preferable to leeches. Cups may be used to prevent the absorption of the virus in poisoned wounds and bites. M. Junod, in France, in 1838, invented a monster apparatus, capable of receiving the whole lower extremity, in which by means of a pump the limb could be compressed or placed in a comparative vacuum; the derivative and revulsive effects of this apparatus were most energetic, amounting, if desired, to the production of syncope.

CURACOA, CURAÇAO, CURAZOA, or Curassou, an island of the Dutch West Indies, in the Caribbean sea, 46 m. N. from the coast of Venezuela; lat. 12° 3' to 12° 24' N., long. 68° 47′ to 69° 16' W.; length from N. W. to S. E. 36 m., breadth 8 m.; pop. in 1857, 17,864, of whom 15,076 were Catholics, 1,922 Protestants, and 866 Jews. It has a hilly surface, with rugged coasts, and is exceedingly barren. The climate is dry and hot, though tempered by sea breezes, and the island is visited by the yellow fever every 6 or 7 years. Fresh water is scarce, and is obtained either from rain or deep wells. Severe droughts frequently occur; the soil is so poor that provisions are imported, and some of the products once cultivated, as indigo, cotton, and cocoa, are now entirely neglected. Sugar, tobacco, maize, cochineal, cattle, horses, asses, sheep, and goats are raised; the tamarind, banana, cocoa palm, orange, and various kinds of kitchen vegetables, grow well, and from the lime is made the celebrated Curaçoa liqueur. Excellent fish are taken off the coast, but the staple of the island is salt, which is obtained by natural evaporation