cultivated wilderness, have placed this exploring wagon historically by the side of the Mayflower. Forty-five men were engaged to accompany it, and to help to settle and defend the new country for the space of 3 years. These emigrants started from Dr. Cutler's house, Dec. 1787; they were well armed, and fired a volley as a salute on their departure from his door. Their number having been increased to 60, they commenced the settlement of Marietta, April 7, 1788, under Gen. Rufus Putnam. In the further discharge of his agency Dr. Cutler started in a sulky for Ohio, which he reached in 29 days by a route of 750 miles. On Aug. 27, 1788, he performed the burial service for a child of Major Cushing, the first funeral that occurred among the whites at Marietta. While there he examined the fortifications and mounds in the neighborhood, which he considered were the work of a nation more civilized and powerful than any existing tribe of Indians. During the few weeks of his visit at the West, he was treated with great kindness, and highly honored; but he felt that at his age he had better remain in New England, and he bade a final adieu to the colony which he was in a great measure the means of founding. In 1795 President Washington tendered to him a commission as judge of the supreme court of the Ohio territory, which honor he declined. He was afterward elected by his people representative to the state legislature, and from 1800 to 1804 he served as a representative in congress.-JERVIS, son of the preceding, one of the earliest emigrants to the western states, born in 1769 at Hamilton, Masss., died at Evansville, Ind., June 25, 1844. In 1788, at the age of 19, he joined the little company who, under Gen. Rufus Putnam, settled at Marietta, Ohio, then in the midst of Indian battle grounds. He was afterward able to say that he was the first man who ever cut down a tree for an emigrant's clearing in that great state. He was the last survivor of that pioneer company.

CUTLER, TIMOTHY, D.D., president of Yale college, born in 1685, died in Boston, Mass., Aug. 17, 1765. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1701, and after a ministry of 10 years at Stratford, Conn., was chosen president of Yale college in 1719. In 1722 he renounced his connection with the Congregational churches, whereupon the trustees of the college passed a vote "excusing him from further service as rector of Yale college," and requiring in future from their rectors evidence of the "soundness of their faith in opposition to Arminian and prelatical corruptions." He then went to England, where he took orders. Returning to Boston in July, 1723, he became rector of Christ church, where he remained till his death. He published a ser mon delivered before the general court at New Haven, in 1717, and one upon the death of Thomas Graves, 1757. A series of his letters published in Nichols's "Illustrations of Literary History," have considerable historical value.

CUTLERY (Fr. coutellerie), a general term

including sharp cutting and many pointed instruments, made of iron and steel, as knives, forks, razors, &c. Instruments of this charac ter were made in ancient times of various hard stones like flint; and shells also are still used by rude nations in the want of better cutting instruments. The ancient Egyptians appear to have possessed the art of giving a hardness to bronze, which adapted it to purposes for which only the best tempered steel is now found suitable. The Greeks also employed it before they were acquainted with the properties of steel; but these they appear to have understood in the time of Homer, distinct reference being made in the Odyssey to the process of tempering it. Their citations, as also those of the Romans, of districts famous for their production of iron, might still be correctly repeated; yet the ancient swords found in Herculaneum and Pompeii, the surgical and other cutting instruments, are not of the material, ferrum, always connected by the Latin writers with the weapons named, but of bronze. The manufacture of articles of cutlery was practised by the ancient Britons at as early a period certainly as the time of the Roman invasion, when they possessed broadswords, scythes, hooks, and spears, made from the products of their iron mines. Sheffield was a noted place for their manufacture in the time of Chaucer, who says of the miller of Trompington :

A Shefeld thwytel bare he in his hose.

Forks were not used till a much later period; even in the time of James I. they were regarded as a curious device of the Italians, worthy of a formal notice by the traveller Coryat.

The

Steel is the proper material for the cutting edges of all articles of cutlery; the backs may be made, if preferred for the sake of using a cheaper material, of iron, to which the steel is welded. So also of the handles of the instruments, or the tangs by which they are secured to handles of other materials. steel for many instruments may be the blistered steel, or this after it has been fagoted and drawn down by tilt hammers to the bars called shear steel. This is a tough variety, easily worked, and answers very well for table knives, plane irons, scythes, &c. But when a fine finish is required, or great hardness, the blistered steel should be converted by fusion into cast steel, and the ingots be forged into bars, and these into the shapes required. Simple articles of cutlery, as chisels, are made by hammering a bit of cast steel into the shape of the cutting end, giving length enough to allow of considerable wear. This is made very thin, as it is intended only for the edge, and upon it is laid and welded a flat slip of iron, which has been forged into the shape of the chisel, and upon which the shoulder is shaped by driving it into a cavity in the anvil or a block with a suitably formed die to give the shape desired, and hammering upon the shank above a swage which fits around it like a collar. One side of the chisel is thus iron intended to be ground away:

the other side is the steel, which may be tempered to a proper degree of hardness. Small chisels are hammered entirely out of slender bars of steel. The materials employed for scissors are still more various. Common qualities are of shear steel, with the blades only hardened. The best qualities are of cast steel, with blades, bows, and shanks all hardened. Large scissors, as the shears used by tailors, are of steel only in the blades, the rest being of iron; formerly only the edge was of steel. Some scissors are made of a good quality of cast iron, to which the English manufacturers give the name of run or virgin steel. Even of these there are inferior qualities, made for exportation, of common cast iron. A dozen pair of these sell for 34d. But scissors of the best steel are manufactured with bows and shanks of gold that sell for more than 10 guineas the single pair. When made wholly of steel, the blade is hammered out at the end of a small bar, which is cut off with enough of the steel for the shank and bow. Through this a hole is punched, which is enlarged over the point of a small anvil or beak iron. By hammering and filing the exact shape is given; the joint is then squared, the hole bored for the rivet or screw, the blades are ground, and the bows smooth filed and burnished with oil and fine emery. Any ornamental devices are given by swaging in dies which contain the patterns. The blades are hardly measured except by the eye in the process of forging, and not being made with reference to pairing, the matches are afterward selected among many blades. Being sorted, and a pair screwed together, they are made to "walk and talk" well, as the "putter together" calls their playing with a smooth motion. After this follow various operations of hardening, grinding to give the exact shape, glazing and polishing, and the final burnishing with polished steel tools, which is done by women. An ingenious device is introduced, by which the cutting edges of the blades are brought in close contact with each other only at the point where the cutting is effected, which point moves from the end next the pivot to the extremity of the blades, in the operation of closing these. This consists in giving a slightly bowed shape to the blades, and raising upon the inner surface of each, close behind the pivot, a little triangular prominence, which makes the blades cant more and more toward each other as they are closed. The effect of these bulges and of the bow shape may be observed on holding a pair of scissors edgewise to the light; when closed the blades are seen to touch each other only at the point and at the centre on these enlargements, which are called the riding part. The arrangement also gives a certain degree of elasticity which adds to the smooth action of the instrument. The blade of a table knife and of other large knives is hammered out upon an anvil at the end of a bar of shear or cast steel, and cut off. It is then welded on to a bar of wrought iron about an inch square, and enough of this is

cut off to form the bolster or shoulder and the tang. The blade is heated and hammered, or, as it is called, smithed, which serves to condense the metal and enables it to receive a higher finish. The mark of the maker is then stamped upon it, and it is hardened by heating to redness, and plunging into cold water. It is tempered to a blue color, and is then ready for grinding. The small blades of penknives are hammered entire out of the best cast steel. A temporary tang is drawn out to secure the blade in a small handle while it is ground. A number of blades are heated together for tempering, by being placed over the fire upon a flat plate of iron, their backs downward; when at the proper degree of redness so as to take a brown or purple color, they are dipped in water up to the shoulder. For razors the very best cast steel is selected, and when the blade is shaped upon the anvil from a bar as thick as the back of the razor and an inch wide, it is well smithed to condense the metal as much as possible. Only the best steel will bear the working down of one part of the blade to the requisite thinness, while the back is left thick. By grinding on a dry coarse stone, the shape is further improved, and the scale is removed, which might interfere with the tempering. This operation is performed after the blade is drilled for the pin of the joint and stamped. It is next ground on a stone wet with water, and is afterward submitted to several processes of glazing and polishing, the last being effected on a soft buff wheel, covered with dry crocus and slowly revolving. Forks are hammered out of square steel rods, commonly of inch. The tang and shank are roughly shaped at the end of the rod, and are then cut off with about an inch of the square steel beside. This is drawn out flat for the prongs; and the shank and tang are then shaped by the die and swage. The other end, heated to a white heat, is laid in a steel die upon an anvil, when another die attached to the under face of a heavy block of metal is allowed to fall upon it from the height of 7 or 8 feet. The prongs are thus shaped, and all but a thin film of steel removed from between them. This is afterward cleaned out with an instrument called a fly-press. A number of forks are then collected together and annealed by heating and allowing them to cool slowly. This renders them soft, so that they are easily shaped by the file and by bending. They are hardened by another heating to redness followed by sudden cooling in cold water, when they are at last tempered at the heat at which grease inflames.— The process of tempering, to which all articles of steel cutlery are subjected, is intended to remove the brittleness consequent upon the hardening of the steel. This is effected by reheating it to a proper temperature and suddenly plunging the metal into cold water. The higher the temperature of this reheating, the softer and stronger is the steel; at lower degrees of heat a greater hardness is secured, but with proportional brittleness. The different temperatures

The film which presents the color appears to be owing to the oxygen of the air, as it could not be produced by Sir Humphry Davy in nitrogen. The action is probably upon the carbon of the steel, and the effect is to partially protect the steel from oxidation producing rust. -In places where the manufacture of cutlery is carried on upon an extensive scale, as at Sheffield, the grinding and polishing is conducted in large mills or "wheels" devoted to this purpose. The rooms of these establishments, called hulls, are furnished each with 6 arrangements for grinding, which are called troughs. They consist of the stone for grinding, a polisher, and the pulley for driving them. The stones are of various sizes, from 4 inches to 2 feet in diameter, adapted to the articles to be ground. The convex surface of the small 4 or 5 inch stones gives the concavity on the face of the razor blades. Some are used dry, and others, employed for grinding articles, the temper of which might be injured by the heat, are kept wet. The dry grinding is more expeditious, but unless the troughs are furnished with a ventilating fan and flue for carrying off the fine metallic particles and the dust from the stones, the health of the workmen is very seriously affected. Fork grinding, which is always done without water, is described by Dr. Holland of Sheffield as probably more destructive to human life than any other pursuit. The air of the rooms becomes filled with the fine dust, and the inhaling of this produces cough and inflammation of the lungs, reducing the average age of the fork grinders to 30 years or less. Glazing or lapping succeeds to the grinding. Each process consists in applying the articles to the face of a revolving wheel, upon which a lump of emery cake is occasionally rubbed. The glazier is a wheel made of 6 or 8 pieces of some close-grained wood, arranged so that the grain lies as much as possible in the line from the centre to the circumference. The lap is a thin wooden wheel faced around its edge with a rim or tire of metal. This usually consists of 4 or 5 parts of lead to 1 of tin, and is secured by being run when melted between the projecting edges of the face of the wheel. After being cast it is turned true, and is then indented or

grooved in order to make it hold the dressing of emery and oil. Various qualities of polish are produced upon steel blades by drawing them from end to end across the revolving lap, according to the fineness of the emery with which this is fed, or the smoother face given by the application of a stick of charcoal succeeded by that of a smooth piece of flint. For giving the finest polish to razors and other articles of fine cutlery, polishing wheels of wood are used with faces covered with leather and charged with dry crocus.-The handles of articles of cutlery are made from a variety of materials; as the ivory of the elephant and walrus, different kinds of horn, mother-ofpearl, tortoise shell, and some sorts of wood, as cocoa and snakewood. Ivory is used more than other materials for table knives, &c. A solid piece of the right size is cut out, and the hole for the tang is bored in one end. Sometimes this is made entirely through the handle, so that the end of the tang may be secured by riveting upon a metallic cap which is thus attached to the extremity of the handle. When it passes only part way through, it is secured by cement, or by a late contrivance of the Messrs. Rodgers of Sheffield-a little spring catch fastened to the tang, which falls into a notch made in the cavity in the handle as the tang is introduced, and prevents its being withdrawn. Balance handles are made with lead introduced into the further end of the cavity for the tang, the object being to counterbalance the blade, so that the knife when laid down rests only upon the outer extremity of the handle and the projecting shoulder of the blade at its other end. Common knives are made with a thin flat tang, to which strips of wood or bone are securely riveted for a handle, one on each side. The handles of penknives are much more elaborate in their construction, involving a greater variety of processes than the blades themselves. The springs are nice pieces of work requiring their peculiar temper, and a final glazing upon their backs. The slips for the handles demand great care in their fitting and frequently in their ornamentation. The thin plates, called scales, which form the sides and divisions of the handle, must be exactly adjusted to all the other parts, to which they are secured by rivets passing through the springs and outer pieces. It is stated that a three-bladed knife passes through the finisher's hands about 100 times.-The manufacture of table cutlery is of recent introduction in the United States. It was commenced in January, 1834, by Mr. John Russell of Greenfield, Mass., and some time afterward was undertaken by the Messrs. Ropes of Portland, Me., and the Messrs. Lamson of Shelburne Falls, Mass. It made but slow progress until the processes were improved by the application of machinery to form the blades, by the plan of Mr. Russell, which has since been introduced in the European works. The establishment of the Green river manufacturing company, near Greenfield village, has produced for several

years past table cutlery and butcher and shoe knives to the amount of $300,000 annually, giving employment to from 300 to 340 men and boys, and consuming every year 100 tons of cast steel, 180 tons of Granadilla wood for handles, 50 tons of ebony, 50 tons of horns of cattle, 16,500 lbs. of ivory, 150 tons of anthracite, 15,000 bushels of charcoal, 175 tons of grindstones. Their knives are found in all parts of the United States, and are exported to South America, and some even to Australia and other parts of the world. The aggregate value of cutlery produced in Massachusetts in 1855 was $573,625, chiefly in Franklin county. As regards the quality of the articles, Fleischmann, in his work on the branches of industry in the United States, remarks that "the manufacturers of cutlery have far surpassed those of the old world in the manufacture of tools, and that not merely in the excellence of the metal used, but especiaily in the practical utility of their patterns, and in the remarkable degree of finish of their work." This finish, it may be remarked, appears to be applied in American work only where it will be conspicuous, and hence useful; but in the machinery of American clocks and watches it is saved as a useless expense, adding as it does in English work of this class much to the cost, with no corresponding benefit. The value of cutlery exported from the United States during the year ending Sept. 80, 1857, was $12,663, and of imports, $2,140,824, viz.: from England, $1,953,396; Germany, $87,540; France, $73,315; other countries, $26,573. During the 11 months ending Nov. 30, 1858, the imports of cutlery and hardware from England amounted to about $2,800,000.

CUTTACK, a province of British India, in the Bengal presidency, bounded E. and S. E. by the bay of Bengal, and lying between lat. 19° 40′ and 21° 45' N., long. 85° 8′ and 87° 31′ E.; area 6,705 sq. m.; pop. 1,556,395. It is divided into the districts of Pooree, Cuttack proper, and Balasore. The district of Cuttack has an area of 3,061 sq. m. It is well watered and has a diversified surface, the coast being level and the N. W. part traversed by wooded hills which produce teak and other valuable timber. Wheat, maize, rice, sugar, pulse, spices, and dyestuffs are the principal productions. The best salt in India is made on the coast, and iron is found among the hills. The climate is hot and unhealthy. The province was acquired by the British from the rajah of Berar in 1803. In 1817 it was the theatre of a serious revolt, and in 1857 was somewhat disturbed, though free from any considerable outbreak. The Cuttack Mehals, a group of 18 petty states, with an aggregate area of 16,929 sq. m., and a pop. of 761,805, became subject to the East India company on the acquisition of the province. They comprise a small proportion of arable land, but are valuable for their timber.-CUTTACK, the capital of the above district, is situated on a tongue of land between 2 branches of the Mahanuddy river, 60 m. from its mouth and 220 m. S. W. from Calcutta; pop.

estimated at 40,000. Embankments faced with stone protect it from the frequent overflows of the river, which has been known to rise 6 feet above the level of the town in a single night. It is half in ruins, has little trade, and contains no handsome buildings. Many of its private dwellings, however, are well built of brick or stone, and it has manufactories of cooking utensils and shoes. Near it is the decayed fortress of Barahbattee, now used as a quarry. The town was the capital of the ancient province of Orissa, and its name, from the Sanscrit catak, signifies a royal residence. It was captured by the British in 1803.

CUTTER, a small vessel with one mast, and a straight running bowsprit, which may be run in upon deck. It differs from the sloop by having no stay to support its jib. They are fastsailing, and are often employed by smugglers, and also by the government for the purpose of apprehending them; in the latter case they are termed revenue cutters.

CUTTLE FISH (sepia officinalis), a molluscous animal or shellfish, a species of the family sepiada, of the class of cephalopods. The shell of the animal, which characterizes the family, is a broad laminated plate imbedded in the back part of the mantle, and terminating behind in an imperfectly chambered apex (mucro), which is supposed to answer as a sort of guard or fender in the collisions the animals are exposed to in swimming backward. This shell is a friable calcareous substance known as cuttle bone, or pounce, and used for polishing soft metals. The bone of a Chinese cuttle fish has been found 1 feet in length. As a fossil the bone has been met with in the eocene clays of the London basin, and of forms indicating different species from those now living. The cuttle fishes are provided with 8 arms and 2 long tentacles, all of which radiate from around the head. The tentacles are provided with suckers, and reach beyond the arms to seize prey, and serve also to moor the animal. The suckers hold so fast to objects that the limb will part from the body before they let go. By means of their arms they walk on the bottom with their heads downward; the same organs aid them in swimming, and a propelling force is moreover obtained by violently ejecting water from their branchial chamber. As a means of defence they are provided with an ink bag, the discharge of which opens into the funnel by which the water is ejected from the 2 gills; when attacked the animal instantly darkens the water with the black fluid from this bag, and retreats in the obscurity it occasions. Several species of sepia produce this inky substance. It was well known to the ancients, and is described by Aristotle. It appears to have been used for writing; and in modern times it has served for the preparation of the brown pigment called sepia, but this is now prepared from lampblack. The ink consists of carbon in a finely divided state, of albumen, gelatine, and phosphate of lime. The bag must be dried immediately when taken from

the animal, as it is liable to putrefy. The dried material is triturated with a caustic alkali, and then boiled with a solution of the same. After filtering, the alkali is neutralized by adding an acid, and the precipitated sepia is collected, washed, and dried. Buckland states that he had some sepia prepared from ink bags of extinct cephalopods found preserved in a fossil state in the lias formation, and that the pigment was of such excellent quality as to attract the attention of a celebrated painter. Cuttle fishes are found in the open sea in almost all parts of the world; and they appear near the coasts periodically in shoals. They have large eyes placed on the sides of the head, which seem designed for use in the night or in the darkness of deep waters, as the animal avoids the light of day. No other mollusca attain so large size as the cuttle fish. One has been met with of about 6 feet in length.

CUTTY STOOL, the stool of repentance, formerly employed in the Scotch kirk, for of fenders against the law of chastity. The criminal having been deprived of church ordinances, and duly taken to task privately for his or her offence, was required to make a public acknowledgment of the sin prior to being restored to communion. The penance consisted in occupying the cutty stool, in face of the congregation, and being lectured by the minister on the enormity of the offence. Sometimes the offender was clad in a white sheet, the stool of repentance being painted black, and placed conspicuously in an upper gallery. The custom has fallen into disuse.

CUT-WORM, the caterpillar of an owlet moth of the tribe of noctuæ, and group agrotidida; this name has also been given to many other grubs and worms living in the ground. This caterpillar remains by day about the roots of plants, and comes forth at night to cut off the tender stems and leaves of cabbages, beans, corn, and many other culinary plants. Some of the moths of this family fly by day, others only at night; the wings are nearly horizontal when closed; the thorax smooth and slightly convex; the antennæ of the males generally with 2 rows of fine tooth-like points on the under side; the fore legs are often quite spiny. Most of these moths appear in July and August, laying their eggs in the ground; in Europe the caterpillars are hatched in early autumn, and feed on the tender roots of plants; descending deeper in winter, they remain torpid until spring. The cat erpillars of the agrotidians are smooth, shining, naked, dark-colored, with longitudinal pale and dark stripes, and a few black dots on each ring; cylindrical, short, and thick, with 16 legs; the chrysalis is transformed in the ground, without a cocoon. The most destructive European species are the winter dart moth (agrotis segetum), and the wheat dart moth (A. tritici), both destroying the roots and leaves of winter wheat and buckwheat; the eagle moth (A. aquilina), an occasional pest in vineyards; and the antler moth (charaas graminis), very destructive in

meadows and mountain pastures. The American species have the same habits, appearing about the same time, destroying whole fields of corn, potatoes, cabbages, beans, and other vegetables, and also asters, pinks, balsams, and other ornamental plants. The caterpillars vary in length from 1 to 2 inches, and are thick, of a dark ashy gray color, with a brown head, and a pale dorsal stripe, with minute black dots; the chrysalis is of a shining dark brown, and the moth appears from the 20th of July to the middle of August. There are at least 5 species in New England. The largest is the A. telifera (Harris), having the fore wings light brown, divided by 2 transverse bands of wavy dark brown lines, and with 3 spots (one lance-marked) encircled with dark brown; the hind wings are pearly white, the abdomen gray; expanse of wings at least 2 inches. The A. inermis (Harris) is slightly smaller, resembling the preceding except in the absence of the lance-shaped spot; the thorax is reddish brown. The A. messoria (Harris) has the fore wings reddish gray, with 5 wavy blackish bands and 3 wing spots; the hind wings whitish, and dusky brown behind; the body grayish; the expanse of wings 13 inches. The A. tessellata (Harris) expands only 11 inches; the fore wings are dark ash, with only a faint trace of bands, and with large alternate pale and black spots; the hind wings brownish gray in the middle, and blackish behind. The 4. devastator (Harris), the moth of the cabbage cutworm, has the fore wings dark satiny ashy gray, with 4 narrow, wavy, whitish bands edged with black, and white dots and dark spots; the hind wings are a light brownish gray, dusky behind; body gray; expanse of wings 1 to 1 inches. All these fly only at night; the last is not easily taken from its rapid motions, and often flies into lamps and candles after the middle of July. Other species are described by Dr. Harris. The ravages of the true cut-worms are not prevented by any treatment of the seed, as they feed only on the young sprouts and stalks; the only effectual way to prevent their depredations is to open the earth daily at the foot of the growing plants and kill the worms, which are easily found. It is said that a manure of sea mud will protect a garden from these worms; some cultivators protect their cabbage plants by wrapping a walnut leaf or paper cone firmly around the root, secured by an earth embankment. Turning up in the fall lands which are to be planted the next year, exposes many grubs to cold and to the birds, but has been considered a remedy of doubtful utility.

CUVIER, GEORGES CHRÉTIEN LEOPOLD DAGOBERT, a French naturalist, born at Montbéliard (now a French town, but formerly the chief place of a principality belonging to the duke of Würtemberg), Aug. 23, 1769, died in Paris, May 13, 1832. The family came originally from a village in the Jura which still bears the name of Cuvier; at the time of the reformation it settled at Montbéliard, where some of its members held offices of distinction. The grandfather of