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on the exploits of their deliverer from the Babylonish captivity; on the "one from the north" and "from the rising of the sun," who comes "upon princes as upon mortar, and as the potter treadeth clay," who executes on Babylon the vengeance of the Lord," "that saith to the deep, Be dry, and I will dry up thy rivers; that saith of Cyrus, He is my shepherd and shall perform all my pleasure; even saying to Jerusalem, Thou shalt be built; and to the temple, Thy foundation shall be laid " (Isaiah). They delight to relate how "the mighty men of Babylon have forborne to fight, they have remained in their holds, their might hath failed; they became as women;" how one post runs "to meet another, and one messenger to meet another, to show the king of Babylon that his city is taken at one end" (Jeremiah). After the fall of the capital (538), which seems to have been greeted by many oppressed nations of Asia as the commencement of an era of justice and freedom, all the provinces of the Babylonian empire speedily surrendered to the conqueror, who was now master of nearly all the countries between the Indus and the Egæan, the Oxus and the Red sea. Satisfied with this vast dominion, which he ruled wisely and justly, Xenophon makes him die in peace and in his bed with a Socratic speech on his lips; but Arrian attributes to him afterward an invasion of India across the desert of Arachosia; Ctesias, an expedition against the Derbices, a people in the Caucasian regions, in which he is slain; and Herodotus, an attack upon the Massagetæ, northern nomades ruled by a queen, Tomyris, and greatly resembling the Scythians, in whose country he was defeated and slain in a bloody battle. Tomyris, who revenged the death of her son, filled a skin with human blood, Herodotus adds, into which she dipped the head of Cyrus, thus giving the insatiable conqueror, as she said, his fill of blood. There is, however, some testimony to the allegation that he was buried in Pasargada in his native province, "where his tomb was honored and watched until the breaking up of the empire, while his memory was held in profound veneration among the Persians." "There is much reason to believe," says Rawlinson, "that the tomb of Cyrus still exists at Murgab, the ancient Pasargada. On a square base, composed of immense blocks of white marble, rising in steps, stands a structure so closely resembling the description of Arrian, that it seems scarcely possible to doubt that it is the tomb which in Alexander's time contained the body of Cyrus. It is a quadrangular edifice or chamber, built of blocks 5 feet thick, which are shaped at the top into a sloping roof. Internally the chamber is 10 feet long, 7 wide, and 8 high. There are holes in the marble floor, which seem to have admitted the fastenings of a sarcophagus. The tomb stands in an area marked out by pillars, where occurs repeatedly the inscription (written both in Persian and the so-called Median): Iam Cyrus the king, the Achæmenian.'

It is called by the natives the tomb of the mother of Solomon." II. CYRUS THE YOUNGER, 2d son of Darius Nothus, king of Persia, received from his father at an early age the satrapy of Lydia, Phrygia, and other parts of Asia Minor (407 B. Č.). When his elder brother, Artaxerxes II., ascended the throne (404), he formed a plot against his life, which was discovered by Tissaphernes, and pardoned on the intercession of Parysatis, the widow of Darius. Reinstated in his satrapy, Cyrus succeeded in collecting a powerful army, including 13,000 Greek mercenaries, and marched from Sardis in the spring of 401 toward Babylonia, with the secret purpose of dethroning his brother. Having crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus, he met the king at the head of an immense army, near Cunaxa. The battle was nearly won, especially by the valor of the Greeks on the right wing, when, perceiving Artaxerxes in the centre, the ambitious prince furiously rushed to assail him, and fell pierced by a javelin, after having wounded his brother. The character and accomplishments of this prince are painted in the brightest colors by Xenophon, in the 1st book of the Anabasis.

CYTHERA. See CERIGO.

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CYZICUS, one of the oldest and most powerful of the Greek cities of Asia, situated on a small island in the Propontis, near the Mysian shore, is said to have been founded by a Pelasgic tribe, expelled from their homes by the lians. It was afterward subject alternately to Athens, Sparta, and Persia, and obtained its independence after the time of Alexander. In the wars which determined the fate of the kingdom of Syria it took part with Pergamus and the Romans against Antiochus. The heroism with which the Cyzicenes defended their city when it was besieged by Mithridates obtained for it the rank of a libera civitas. When Constantine created the new province of Hellespontus, he made Cyzicus the capital. It was partially destroyed by an earthquake in A. D. 443, and was captured and completely ruined by the Arabians in 675. The place is now overgrown with neglected orchards and vineyards, and a low sandy isthmus has been formed, converting the island into a peninsula.

CZACKI, TADEUSZ, a Polish financier and author, born in 1765, at Poryck, in Volhynia, died at Dubno, Feb. 8, 1813. At an early age King Stanislas Augustus appointed him to an office in the royal tribunal of Warsaw, where the regulation of the secret archives of the Polish sovereigns was intrusted to him. From 1788 to 1795 he was a member of the Polish board of the treasury. He was also employed by the committee which discussed the constitution of May 3, 1791, of which he was a staunch supporter. When the second division of Poland took place, his property was confiscated, but afterward restored by Paul I. In the latter part of his life he devoted himself to the interests of education. His views met with the approbation of Alexander, and the gymnasium of

Kremenetz, in Volhynia, of which he was the founder, was opened in 1805. The instruction in this school gave umbrage to the government; but on being, in 1807, summoned to St. Petersburg, he succeeded not only in making his vindication acceptable to the czar, but was appointed curator of the public schools of western Poland. His complete works, which are mostly historical, were published in 3 vols., in Posen, in 1843-45; the most important being his book "Of the Laws of Poland and Lithuania."

CZAJKOWSKI, MICHAL, a Polish novelist (now Sadik Pasha, a general in the Turkish army), born in 1808 in the Ukraine. His enthusiasm was kindled by the writings of Adam Mickiewicz, with whose romantic spirit his novels, which chiefly treat of Cossack and of Ukrainian life, are deeply imbued. After the Polish revolution of 1830, in which he had taken a part, he betook himself to Paris. In 1840 he was sent by Prince Czartoryski on a mission to Turkey, but at the instigation of Russia he was compelled to relinquish this office, and would have been banished from the Turkish territory if, at the beginning of 1851, he had not become a convert to Islamism under the name of Mohammed Sadik Effendi. In the war with Russia he organized and commanded a body of troops under the name of Cossacks of the sultan. After the expulsion of the Russians from the Danubian principalities he was made military governor of Bucharest, and commander of the Turkish army under Omar Pasha in Bessarabia. His novels, of which Wernyhora is the most esteemed, have been translated into several languages, and a French translation appeared in Paris in 1857, under the title of Contes Cosaques. CZAR, or TZAR, a title of the sovereigns of Russia, meaning king or lord. It has been supposed by some to be an imitation or corruption of the Latin Cæsar, in the sense of the German Kaiser, but the ancient Slavic translation of the Bible has kessar for Kawap, and tzar for king. Karamsin therefore, and others after him, compare the term with the syllable sar found in the names of the Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs Phalassar (Pileser), Nabonassar, and Nabopolassar, and with the Hebrew sar (commander, chief). The Mongols used the same appellation, and it is probably from them that the Russians adopted it. It is used by Russian annalists as early as the 12th century; but as the official title of the monarchs of Russia it dates from the 16th. Before this period they styled themselves grand princes (velikoi kniazh) of Kiev, Novgorod, Vladimir, Moscow, &c. Basil Ivanovitch assumed in 1505 the title of samoderzhetz, or autocrat; his son Ivan the Terrible was crowned in 1547 as czar. After the annexation of Smolensk and the Ukraine, the title of czar of Moscow was changed into that of czar of Great, White, and Little Russia (of all the Russias). Though the word czar was used by the Russians also to designate the emperors of the West, as well as of the East (hence the name Tzargorod, city of the emperor for Constantinople), Peter

the Great, in order to be without contradiction ranked among the monarchs of the highest category, assumed in 1721 in addition the title of imperator, or emperor. In the long negotiations for the acknowledgment of this dignity, which was contested by many states of Europe, it was proved that Maximilian I., who in 1514 concluded a treaty of alliance with Russia against Poland, had used the term emperor (Kaiser) for czar, and that the same was done by other powers in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was not, however, till the reign of Catharine II. that Poland, Spain, and Turkey acknowledged the imperial dignity of Russia. The wife of the czar was anciently called tzaritza; his sons had the title of tzarevitch, his daughters that of tzarevna. Since the death of the unhappy Alexei, however, the latter appellations have been replaced by those of grand prince and grand princess. Constantine, the 2d son of Paul I., received in 1799 the title of tzesarevitch, which was bestowed after his death in 1831, by the empe ror Nicholas, upon his own son Alexander (now the reigning emperor). The wife of the latter received the title of tzesarevna. The crown prince Nicholas Alexandrovitch, born in 1843, now bears the former title. The empress is styled in Russian imperatritza. The popular Russian appellation of the sovereign is still czar, or hossoodar (hospodar, lord). Czar was also the ancient title of the princes of Grusia, or Georgia, and Imeritia, now Russian provinces.

CZARNIECKI, or CZARNECKI, STEFAN, a Polish general, born at Czaruca, in the palatinate of Sandomierz, in 1599, died at Sokolówka in Volhynia, in 1665. Of a noble but poor family, he studied at the university of Cracow, entered the army, and met with little advancement before the outbreak of the great Cossack rebellion in 1648. Having been made captive in the battle at the Yellow Waters (May 25, 1648), he was delivered by Chmielnicki, the leader of the Cossacks, to the Tartars, but set free after the pacification of Zborów, in the following year. He fought in the long and bloody battle at Beresteczko, June, 1651, in which the Cossacks and their allies, the Tartars, were defeated. The period of reverses which followed the defeat of the Poles under Kalinowski, at Batów, by the Cossacks, the incursions of these rebels, the invasion of the Muscovites from the east, of Charles Gustavus of Sweden from the north, and of Rákóczy, prince of Transylvania, from the south, called Czarniecki to greater activity. In 1655 he defended the castle of Cracow with the utmost bravery against the king of Sweden, but was compelled by want of food to surrender. After the repulse of the Swedes from Czenstochowa he collected the scattered remains of the Polish troops, formed the confederation of Tyszowce with John Sobieski and others, and commenced a brilliant and successful course of guerrilla warfare against the Swedes, who had conquered the greatest part of the country, and before whom the patriotic but feeble king, John Casimir, had fled to Silesia. In the early part

of 1656, with the assistance of 5,000 Tartars, he defeated them in 4 battles, brought back the king in triumph, and turned his arms with similar success against the Transylvanians. The dignity of palatine of Red Russia, and the title of "Liberator of Poland," were his reward. In 1658 he marched to the assistance of Frederic III. king of Denmark, who had invaded the German possessions of Sweden; he conquered the island of Alsen, took the command against the Russians, hastened to Lithuania, and won 2 great victories at Polonka, near Slonim, June 26, 1660, and on the banks of the Dnieper, over Chavanskoi and Dolgorouki. Peace was now conquered with Sweden (1660), and Moscow (1661). Having been made starosta of Tykocin, he undertook to chastise the Cossacks, who, incited and supported by the Russians, had again commenced their devastations (1663); and in order to procure the assistance of the Tartar khan he set out with only 13 horsemen, following the course of the Dniester, hastened through Bessarabia and the Ukraine to the Crimea, and defeated the Cossacks at Czehryn (1664), and Stawiszcze (1665). But these exertions exhausted him; returning to Tykocin, he could not be carried beyond the village of Sokolówka, where he died in a peasant's hut, having received a few days before the staff of hetman of the crown. In 1760 John Clement Branicki, his descendant, caused a statue to be erected to his memory.

CZARTORYSKI, the name of a Polish princely family, whose origin is traced back to Korygiello or Constantine of Tchernigov, son of Olgierd, duke of Lithuania, and half brother of Jagiello, the founder of the dynasty of that name in Poland (1386). The name is derived from the dominion of Czartorya, and the place Czartorysk near Luck in Volhynia. Of the 2 branches of the family, which belongs to the highest rank of nobility in their country, and boasts of a number of statesmen equally remarkable for wealth, talents, and patriotism, the male line of the younger branch, that of Korzek, became extinct in 1810, while the elder, that of Zukow, is still flourishing in a number of conspicuous persons of both sexes. To this elder branch belong the following historical persons: I. MICHAL FRYDERYK, born in 1695, died at Warsaw, Aug. 13, 1775. He was made castellan of Wilna in 1720, vice-chancellor of Lithuania in 1724, and great chancellor of that duchy in 1752. Together with his brother and other nobles, he formed an influential party, which strove to bring about a reform of the constitution of Poland, which would strengthen the influence of the king and the judiciary, and restrain the anarchical independence of the high dignitaries of the crown. Their chief object was to change Poland into a hereditary kingdom, if possible under a Czartoryski. To counterbalance the influence of the reigning house of Saxony, as well as that of Austria, they courted the assistance of Russia, which by means of gold and bayonets, however, finally decided the matter in its own favor. II. Au

GUST ALEXANDER, brother of the preceding, born in 1697, died at Warsaw in 1782. He was palatine of Red Russia, and lieutenant-general of the army of the crown. He was a zealous cooperator with his brother, but was deceived in the expectation of seating his son upon the throne of his country. By activity and happy speculations he added greatly to the wealth of the family. III. ADAM KAZIMIERZ, son of the preceding, born Dec. 1, 1731, at Dantzic, died March 19, 1823, at Sieniawa in Galicia. He was chosen by the party which was headed by his father and uncle as candidate for the royal dignity after the death of Augustus III. (1763). To gain the assistance of Russia, Stanislas Poniatowski, whose mother was a sister of the 2 elder Czartoryskis, was sent to the court of St. Petersburg. But the empress Catharine II. determined to put the crown of Poland upon the head of her favorite Poniatowski himself. This determination being known, Czartoryski yielded his pretensions to his happier rival, to whom from his early youth he had been attached as a friend. At the assembly of the nation preceding the election, the Czartoryskis and their adherents appeared in great numbers at Warsaw, and together with them an army of Russians, sent to support the claims of Poniatowski. Adam Kazimierz was chosen marshal or president of the diet in spite of patriotic opposition roused by the presence of the Russians, and Poniatowski was elected king. After the first partition of Poland in 1772, Czartoryski, who possessed large estates in Galicia, accepted the commission of a general of artillery in the Austrian army, but still adhered to the party which worked for the restoration of the power of Poland through a constitutional reform, and distinguished himself by his zeal and activity at the long diet, which proclaimed the liberal constitution of May 3, 1791. He was also active in persuading the elector of Saxony to accept the hereditary succession to the crown of Poland, and Austria to engage in an alliance against Russia. But all these attempts failed; the confederation of Targovitza against the new constitution was assisted by the arms of Russia, Poniatowski deserted the cause of the reform, and in 1793 a new partition of Poland ensued. Czartoryski now retired and lived at Vienna during the great rising under Kosciuszko (1794), whom he persuaded not to extend the insurrection over the frontiers of Austria; which, however, did not prevent that power from taking its share at the final dismemberment of Poland in 1795. He took no part in the events which followed the treaty of Tilsit, and the creation of the duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon (1807); but in 1812 he accepted the marshalship of the confederation, preceding the invasion of Russia, which promised the restoration of ancient Poland. This illusion, however, soon vanished; Napoleon wanted the Poles, but no Poland, and the fatal issue of the great campaign foiled every hope. Czartoryski retired to Pulawy, but in 1815 headed a depu

tation to the congress of Vienna, and presented to the emperor Alexander the outlines of a new constitution for the kingdom of Poland, now reorganized under his sceptre. Alexander made him senator palatine. IV. ELZBIETA, wife of the preceding, born countess of Flemming in 1743, died in Galicia, June 17, 1835. She was distinguished by beauty, spirit, and patriotism, but also inclined to romantic extravagance. Having spent several years at court, and in travels in western Europe, which brought her into contact with the most remarkable personages of the age, she retired to Pulawy, where she constructed the admirable gardens of which Delille sings in the didactic poem Les jardins, and the temple of the sibyl, containing a collection of relics of Polish history, She was also active in promoting industry and education. She published "Ideas on the Construction of Gardens" (Breslau, 1807), and the "Pilgrim in Dobromil" (Warsaw, 1818), a popular book on national history, for the instruction of the agricultural class. Having survived the 3 partitions and 2 restorations of Poland, she proved her patriotism in the revolution of 1830-31, but had the mortification to see her seat at Pulawy bombarded by her own grandson, the prince of Würtemberg, who served in the Russian army. She passed her last years with her daughter in Galicia. The collections of Pulawy were in part dispersed, and in part transported to St. Petersburg. V. MARYA ANNA, daughter of the preceding, born March 15, 1768, died at Paris, Oct. 24, 1854. In 1784 she was married to Louis Frederic Alexandre, prince of Würtemberg, but as he betrayed the cause of Poland in 1792, she left him and was divorced. Her mother in one of her letters characterizes her in these words: "A heavenly soul, an angelic character, a charming figure, talents, virtues, and many misfortunes-this is her history." In 1816 she published a romance, Malwina, which was translated into several languages. After the revolution of 1830-231 she retired to Galicia. The estates of the Czartoryskis in the kingdom of Poland having been confiscated, her only son Adam, prince of Würtemberg, who had served against the Poles, offered her a pension, which she rejected in the following words: "Sir, I have not the honor of knowing you; I have no longer a son, and care little for fortune." VI. ADAM JERZY, brother of the preceding, born Jan. 14, 1770, completed his education in France and at the university of Edinburgh, fought bravely in 1792 against the Russians, in the Lithuanian army under Zabiello, and was sent in 1795 to the court of St. Petersburg, as a hostage for the fidelity of his family. There, being attached to the person of the grand duke Alexander, the future emperor, he became his intimate friend. In 1792 he was sent by the emperor Paul as ambassador to the court of Sardinia, whence he was recalled in 1802 by his successor Alexander, to assist him in the department of foreign affairs. This situation, which he accepted, and

used for the benefit of his country, drew upon him a great deal of envy and patriotic censure on the part of some of his countrymen, which, however, his conduct gradually overcame. On April 11, 1805, he signed for Russia the alliance with England, and accompanied Alexander in the campaign in Austria, where he was present at the battle of Austerlitz. He also followed him to the campaign in Prussia, and after its termination to the conferences of Tilsit in 1807. The duchy of Warsaw having been created by the treaty then concluded, he left the service of the emperor and lived retired from public affairs till 1813, when he again accompanied Alexander to Germany, France, and the congress of Vienna. Made senator palatine of the new kingdom of Poland by Alexander, he appeared at its first diet, acting in behalf of liberal ideas. In 1821 he resigned the curatorship of the university of Wilna, which he had held since its organization in 1803, in consequence of the extraordinary persecutions to which a number of students, accused of conspiracy, had been subjected. The report of his successor Novosiltzoff, who accused him of having delayed for a century, through his management, the amalgamation of Lithuania with Russia, was an honorable testimony to his patriotism. He now more and more won the confidence and esteem of the nation, and after the outbreak of the revolution of Nov. 29, 1830, he was called to preside over the provisional government. He convoked for Dec. 18 the diet which proclaimed the independence of Poland, Jan. 25, 1831, when Czartoryski became president of the national government. This dignity, in which he sacrificed immense riches on the altar of the revolution, he laid down after the terroristic scenes of Aug. 15, to serve as a private soldier in the ranks of the army under Ramorino. After the surrender of that general in Galicia, and the fall of Warsaw (Sept. 1831), he shared the fate of the Polish emigration in France. He was excluded from the amnesty of 1831; his estates in the Russian Polish provinces were confiscated; those in Austria were sequestered in 1846 in consequence of a declaration in favor of the revolutionary movement which drove the Austrians from Cracow, but were restored in 1848. In March, 1848, he issued a proclamation calling upon the representatives of Germany and France to unite for the restoration of Poland. In April of the same year he abolished serfdom on his estates of Sieniawa. Being the choice of the monarchical party in the Polish emigration, and as such distinguished by some too zealous adherents with honors not convenient for an exile, Czartoryski was often the object of violent attacks on the part of the democrats, but together with his wife, Anna, princess of Sapieha (born in 1796), sustained his dignified position by a nearly regal munificence, which made his hotel in Paris a place of refuge for his suftering compatriots. He has 2 sons, WITOLD, born in 1824, and WLADYSLAW, born in 1828, and a

daughter Izabella, born in 1832. VII. KONSTANTY, brother of the preceding, born Oct. 28, 1773, was sent in 1795 together with his brother as hostage to St. Petersburg, where he was attached to the person of the grand duke Constantine Paulovitch. Having returned to Poland, he was made colonel in the army of the duchy of Warsaw in 1809, and followed the army of Napoleon to Russia in 1812. After the retreat from Moscow he retired to Austria, and has since taken no part in public affairs. He has 4 sons. CZASLAU. I. A circle or administrative province of Bohemia; area 1,260 sq. m.; pop. 247,087. It is traversed by the Moravian mountains, in which rise several tributaries of the Moldau and the Elbe. The high lands are well wooded, and the plains and valleys are extremely fertile. Gold, silver, iron, saltpetre, and precious stones, particularly garnets, are found in some districts. There are manufactories of cotton, woollen, and paper. II. Capital of the above circle, pop. 3,500, memorable for a victory over the Austrians gained by Frederic the Great, May 17, 1742. It has a church noted for its lofty spire, and containing the tomb of Ziska, the Hussite leader.

CZECZ, János, a Hungarian general, born at Zsidófalva, in Transylvania, in 1822, was attached in 1846 to the Austrian general staff, and in June, 1848, to the newly created Hungarian ministry of war, served successively under Mészáros in southern Hungary, as reporter of the revolutionary committee of defence headed by Kossuth, and under Bem in Transylvania, where he contributed to the reorganization of the army, as well as to the victories of that general. After the catastrophe of Világos, he succeeded in escaping to Hamburg and London. His "Transylvanian Campaign of Bem" (Hamburg, 1850) is a valuable contribution to the history of that eventful war.

CZEGLED, a large market town in the co. of Pesth, in Hungary, on the Pesth-Szolnok railroad, pop. about 15,000, situated in a fertile district which produces much grain, and some red wine. It has a Roman Catholic and a Calvinist church. The inhabitants are mostly Magyars, and agriculturists. The proximity of Kecskemét, Szolnok, and the Theiss, made Czegléd conspicuous during the Hungarian war of 1848-49, particularly in Jan. 1849, when the offensive against the Austrians was recommenced under Perczel.

CZENSTOCHOWA, or CZENSTOCHAU, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Kalisz, near the Prussian frontier, is situated on the Warta, and on the Cracow and Warsaw railroad line, and consists of the old and new town, and the suburb St. Barbara; pop. about 8,000, of whom about the 8th part are Jews. Its chief manufacture consists in chaplets and images made for the numerous hosts of pilgrims from all parts of Poland and other Slavic countries, who annually visit the shrine of the monastery of St. Paul, situated on the Klarenberg (Pol. Jasna Góra), between the old and new towns,

and containing a dark brown image of the Virgin, the miraculous power of which is a matter of general belief among the Slavic people. The monastery, having been pillaged by the Hussites in the 15th century, was fortified, and afterward withstood in 1655 a siege of the Swedes of Charles Gustavus, who had occupied the whole country, and were here repulsed by a few friars; was bravely defended by the confederates of Bar under Pulaski in 1771, when the old town was reduced to ashes; was taken by the French in 1806, newly fortified by them in 1812, and finally given up to the Russians, who destroyed the fortifications.

CZERNIGOW. See TOHERNIGOV.

CZERNOWITZ, TCHERNOWITZ, or more prop erly CZERNOWICE. I. A circle of Austrian Galicia, also called the Bukovina; pop. about 300,000. It is a mountainous but fertile region, comprising an area of 3,097 sq. m., covered with ridges of the Carpathian system, and everywhere broken into hills and valleys. It is watered by the Pruth and the Sereth. The chief productions are grain, cattle, swine, honey, wax, copper, and lead. There are vast forests of oak, beech, and other timber. The majority of the inhabitants are of Wallachian origin; the remainder are Germans, Russians, and Armenians. II. Capital of the above circle, pop. about 12,000, pleasantly situated on a hill overhanging the Pruth, contains a Greek cathedral, a gymnasium, and high schools. It is neatly built, with wide, clean streets, and gardens and vineyards attached to each house. The principal manufactures are of clocks, silver ware, hardware, and carriages.

CZERNY GEORGE, or KARA GEORGE (literally BLACK GEORGE, czerny in Slavic, and kara in Turkish, signifying black), the leader of the Servians in their insurrection against the Turks, and their chief during the first period of their national restoration, born about 1770, strangled and beheaded in July, 1817. Brought up as a peasant in one of the wild mountain regions of Servia, stern and robust, he evinced while a youth, according to the rather legendary relations of his early life, the courage and fanaticism of his race by the murder of a Mussulman. He served in the Austrian army in the war against Turkey, undertaken by Joseph II., together with Catharine II. of Russia, but soon left the service in consequence of insubordination, and fled into his native mountains, where he became the chieftain of a band of outlaws, who sought to satisfy their thirst for rapine and revenge by pillaging and murdering the Mohammedan oppressors of their country. Tired of this roving life, he reconciled himself with his colonel and followed him to Austria. Under the humane administration of Hadji Mustapha Pasha he returned to his home, where he acquired some property as a grazier, and great popularity by his energy. But the pasha was soon murdered by the janizaries, who now deposed the Turkish authorities and pillaged the Christian natives.

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