to bring up his children, if any should be born, in the Roman Catholic religion, contrary to the rule of his own country and his own religion, he lost for some time the favor of the emperor Nicholas, was summoned home to answer for this offence, but was soon allowed to continue his residence in foreign countries, and lived alternately in France and Italy. His marriage, however, had no issue, and was soon dissolved. On the outbreak of the Russian war against Turkey in 1853, he was attached to the Russian legation at Vienna, and made councillor of state. On various occasions he has evinced a liberality not inadequate to his immense possessions, by donations and foundations for public charity and the promotion of science. He wrote in part the Voyage dans la Russie méridionale et la Crimée, par la Hongrie, la Valachie, et la Moldavie (4 vols. Paris, 1839-'41), in which he was assisted by several French scholars and artists who accompanied him.

DEMIURGE, a Greek word, meaning literally a handicraftsman, but which was applied by the Platonists to an exalted agent or on employed by the Deity in the creation of the universe. The Platonizing Christians regarded the second person in the Trinity, the Divine Word, as one of an infinite series of creators or demiurgi. The adjective demiurgic is used in sacred geology to designate the 6 days in which the world was created. (See GNOSTICS.)

DEMMIN, the capital of a circle of the same name in the Prussian district of Stettin; pop. of the circle 48,400, and of the town 7,759. The latter is situated on the frontiers of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 70 m. from Stettin, in a valley surrounded by hills, on the bank of the river Peene. It consists of the town proper and 3 suburbs, and has manufactories of woollens, linens, hats, and hosiery, and an active trade in tobacco, corn, and timber. The town proper is surrounded by a wall with 3 gates, and was a place of great importance in the time of Charlemagne. It has sustained numerous sieges, suffered severely during the 30 years' war, and was in 1807 the scene of several engagements between the French and Russians.

DEMOCEDES, a Greek physician, born at Crotona, in Magna Græcia, about 550 B. C. He was supposed to have had the benefit of general training under Pythagoras. The severity of his father, Calliphon, caused him to leave his home and settle at gina, where he was very successful. Thence he went on invitation to Athens, and soon afterward he entered the service of Polycrates, tyrant of Samos. Accompanying his patron on his visit to Orotes, satrap of Sardis, he shared that patron's misfortune, and became a slave. When Oroetes was put to death by order of the great king, Democedes was seized as one of his slaves, and sent to Susa. Darius Hystaspes, then monarch of Persia, having sprained his foot badly when leaping from his horse, suffered severely, and could obtain no relief until some one recollected the Greek surgeon who had been seized at Sardis, and who,

in chains and rags, was brought to the royal chamber. At first Democedes denied his surgical skill, but threats of torture were sufficient to make him confess the truth. He cured the king, and was royally rewarded, both by Darius and by the women of the harem. Democedes wished to return home, but the king would not grant him permission; and he had before him, of all things the most unpleasant to a Greek, the prospect of spending his days in a foreign land, when circumstances wrought his liberation, His professional services were sought by Atossa, the principal wife of Darius. She was afflicted with a tumor on the breast, and called in the Greek, who promised to cure her if she would swear to do for him any thing he might ask. Having promised, and the cure effected, she readily sought to procure him permission to return to Greece, which was what he asked for his reward. Knowing that direct means would be useless, he taught her to deceive the king, though it is not probable she was aware of his purpose. When Darius told her that he was about to undertake an expedition against the Scythians, she asked him to change his purpose, and to attempt the conquest of Greece, alleging that she desired some Greek maidens for slaves, and telling him that Democedes was the best person to give information about his country. The king was induced to send the surgeon to Greece, accompanied by 15 Persians, on a secret mission. The Greek promised to return, and to delude the king refused to take any of his own property, saying he should like to find things as they were on coming back to Susa. Laden with rich presents, he went to Sidon, where he and his comrades embarked, and a survey of Greece was made (518 B. C.). Passing to Italy, Democedes persuaded the ruler of Tarentum to seize the Persians as spies, while he continued his journey to Crotona. The Persians were soon released, and proceeding to Crotona, seized Democedes in the market place; but he was rescued by his fellow citizens, who also robbed the Persians of their store ship. On parting with his Persian companions, he bade them tell Darius he was about to marry the daughter of Milo the wrestler, whose fame had reached to Susa. The Persians were shipwrecked on their way home and made slaves, but were recaptured and restored to their home by a Tarentine named Gillus. Nothing more is known of the career of Democedes; he is said to have written a work on medicine, and his professional reputation was almost equal to that of Hippocrates.

DEMOCRACY (Gr. δημος, people, and κρατεω, to rule), the government of the people by themselves. By the Greeks democracy was understood to mean the government of a state by a large body of citizens, in opposition to aristocracy, the government by a few rich or high-born families. In most of the Greek republics there was a perpetual struggle for political power between two classes or factions of the citizens, whose general broad distinction was into poor and rich, or into the many and the few, which, as Aristotle

remarks, are convertible terms, for it is always the rich who are the few and the not rich who are the many. The contests of these factions led to frequent revolutions, and a state was said to be democratic or aristocratic as the one or the other prevailed. But the Greek republics were never at any time democracies in the modern sense of the term. They were all aristocracies, some of them with a broad, others with a narrow basis of citizenship. Of government by the people, meaning by the people all the adult males of a nation, ancient history gives us no example. The fundamental basis of democracy is the recognition of the rights of man as man. Its central principle is the equality of all men before the law, without regard to birth, property, or social rank; from which principle is deduced the right of all men to an equal voice or vote in deciding upon public affairs, or in selecting agents and representatives to perform the functions of legislation and to execute the laws. The principles of democracy are forcibly and clearly stated in the American declaration of independence, in the words of Thomas Jefferson, who has been called "the apostle of democracy": "We hold these truths to be selfevident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain - inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed." These principles are still more fully developed in the constitutions of the states of the Union. The constitution of New Hampshire (1792) says: "All men are born equally free and independent; therefore all government of right originates from the people. .. All power residing originally in and being derived from the people, all the magistrates and officers of government are their substitutes and agents, and at all times accountable to them." The bill of rights prefixed to the constitution of Virginia in 1776, adopted by the convention of 1829-30, and re-adopted by the convention of 1850-51, says: "All men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot by any compact deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life, and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. All power is vested in, and consequently derived from, the people; magistrates are their trustees and servants, and at all times amenable to them." The constitution of Florida (1838) says, that all elections shall be free and equal, and that no property qualification for eligibility to office, or for the right of suffrage, shall ever be required in this state." The Greek republics were founded on principles very different from these. Political power among them was never given to the mass of the people. It was carefully kept in the hands of a privileged class, even when the most liberal parties were in the ascendant.

In the Athenian republic, the most democratic of the Greek states, when the population and the suffrage were most extended, in 317 B. C., there were but 21,000 persons entitled to vote out of a total number of more than 500,000. In 444 B. C. there were 19,000, but upon a revision of the lists being made at the suggestion of Pericles, nearly 5,000 names were struck off because those who bore them did not belong to the privileged class. Thus at the most splendid period of Athenian history, only 14,000 persons, or about 1 in 40 of the population, had a right to vote. In aristocratic England about 1 in 20 are voters, while with truly democratic institutions in any country the proportion of voters to the population will be as 1 to 5 or 6. Sparta was still more undemocratic than Athens. The number of voters in Laconia at the time of the Persian wars, according to Herodotus, was only 8,000, while the number of free citizens who were rigidly excluded from political power is computed to have been 16,000, exclusive of women, children, and slaves. In 369 B. C. the number of Spartan voters had fallen to 2,000; fifty years later there were scarcely 1,000, and in 244 B. C. they had diminished to 700. The Roman citizens, 93 B. C., numbered 463,000, which was probably about of the population of Italy at that period. The Italian republics of the middle ages were also far from being democratic in their institutions. In fact, real democracy was first put in practice in government by the colonies of New England. In Connecticut, in 1639, the elective franchise was given to all men who had taken an oath of allegiance to the commonwealth; the magistrates and legislature were chosen annually by ballot; and the representation was apportioned to the population. To this day the most perfect democracies in the world are the towns of New England, where the whole adult male population assemble together and decide by their votes their own public affairs.-Much confusion of ideas on the subject of democracy has been caused by not discriminating between political and social democracy, between the democracy of laws and the democracy of sentiment and manners. The principle of the legal and political equality of men is not inconsistent with the utmost variety of natural and social distinctions. It only forbids the creation by law of artificial distinctions. The example of the American people shows that democratic political institutions are compatible with very great inequalities in cultivation, manners, style of living, social consideration, and the distribution of property.

DEMOCRITUS, the father of the atomistic philosophy, born in Abdera, Thrace, about 460 B. C., died in 361. He inherited a large fortune, travelled extensively in Asia, made himself acquainted with the various schools of philosophy of his day, and was promoted to high offices on his return to his native country. He was called the "laughing philosopher," in contrast to the "weeping philosopher" Heraclitus, because he taught that a philosopher must never

trouble himself about the follies of man, but regard them with the most serene equanimity. He wrote many works on physical, moral, mathematical, musical, and technical subjects. The most complete collection of the small remnants of his writings extant is that of Mullach (Berlin, 1843). "Every thing," he says, "is composed of atoms or infinitely small elements, each with a definite quality, form, and movement, whose inevitable union and separation shape all different things and forms, laws and effects, and dissolve them again for new combinations. The gods themselves and the human mind originate from such atoms. There are no casualties; every thing is necessary and determined by the nature of the atoms, which have certain mutual affinities, attractions, and repulsions." DEMOIVRE, ABRAHAM, a French mathematician, born at Vitry, in Champagne, May 26, 1667, died in London, Nov. 27, 1754. Upon the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he took refuge in England, and devoted himself to teaching mathematics. He soon became connected with Halley and Newton, was admitted into the royal society of London in 1697, and was one of the committee appointed to decide on the rival claims of Leibnitz and Newton to the invention of the method of fluxions. He survived most of his early associates, and his subsistence latterly depended upon his solutions of problems relative to games of chance, which he was accustomed to give in a coffee house. Beside memoirs in the "Philosophical Transactions," he published the "Doctrine of Chances" (1718), the "Annuities on Lives" (1724), and Miscellanea Analytica, de Seriebus et Quadraturis (1730).

DEMON (Gr. dauwv), a name given by the ancients to a spirit, or immaterial being, supposed to hold a middle place between men and the celestial deities. Demonology plays a prominent part in the oldest religions of the East, and it was an element in the original worship of the dark-colored primitive inhabitants prior to the Aryan migration-of the whole Finnish-Turkish-Mongolian stock, including the occupants of China, Thibet, and Further India. More ancient in India than the Vedas, it has maintained itself there either secretly or by public sanction alike in Brahminism, Buddhism, and Islamism. Its fullest and most systematic development is found in Buddhism, which reckons 6 classes of beings in the universe, 2 only of which, those of men and gods, are accounted good; the other 4 the Asuras, irrational animals, Pretas or goblins, and the denizens of hell-being esteemed evil. The Asuras are the most powerful of the wicked spirits, and, like the Greek Titans and the Scandinavian Jotuns, are in constant warfare with the gods (Devas), the contest being already begun in the age of the Vedas. They dwell beneath the 3pronged root of the world-mountain, occupying the nadir, while their great enemy Indra, the highest Buddhist god, sits upon the pinnacle of the mountain in the zenith. The Meru, which

stands between the earth and the heavens, around which the heavenly bodies revolve, causing day and night according as they are on one side or the other of it, is the battle field of the Asuras and the Devas. The 3 lower divisions of the Meru are held by various races of demons, the 4th being the lowest heaven, and occupied by the 4 Maharadshas, who are appointed to be kings of the demons. Around the Asuras cluster numerous associated groups, as the Rakshasas, probably of Aryan origin, appearing sometimes as gigantic opponents of the gods, sometimes as terrible ogres with bloody tongues and long tusks, eager to devour human flesh and blood, and lurking in fields and forests; the Jakshas, malignant and mischievous, yet little to be feared, honored by the original Asiatics as aerial spirits, and exalted by the Brahmins to be servants of Kuvera; the Nagas, snakes with human countenances; the Mahoragas, great dragons; the Khumbandas, shapeless dwarfs, of uncertain origin, but unknown to the Brahminic demonology; the Kinnaras, horned, and having a horse's head, the musicians of Kuvera, and dangerous to men; the Gandharbas, the musicians of Indra; the Garudas, kings of birds; and the Picatshas, or vampires. According to their nature and office, the different species of demons dwell in the air, the water, the earth, in holes and clefts, in the lower portions of the Meru, with the gods whose servants they are, or on the golden mountains which enclose the inland seas in the Buddhistic system of worlds.-Among the Persians the Indian terminology is transposed, the great Asura representing the good creating principle, and the devs being the evil spirits; thus indicating that religious antagonism at some time existed between the eastern and western Aryans. As completed by Zoroaster, the Persian system made the principle and personifications of evil nearly an equal balance and eternal parallel with the good principle and its personifications. Ormuzd created 6 resplendent angels of love and holiness, called Amshaspands, himself being the 7th and highest; Ahriman then created the 6 archdevs, to oppose the Amshaspands, to paralyze their efforts for good, and substitute evil. Ormuzd created 28 Izeds, or beneficent spirits, who presided over the heavenly bodies, and showered good gifts upon men; but Ahriman made the 28 devs to counteract their influence, and to cause all manner of turmoil and distress. The most powerful and pernicious of the devs was the two-forked serpent Ashmogh. The next series of Ormuzd's creations was an infinite number of Fervers, spirits representing the archetypes of all things, and which became the guardian angels of men, animals, and plants. Ahriman made an equal number of corresponding evil spirits, so that every man and thing has its attendant bad as well as good genius. To arrest the progress of evil, Ormuzd made an egg filled with spirits of light, but Ahriman made an egg which contained an equal force of spirits of darkness, and then broke both together, so that good and

evil were only the more confounded. Ormuzd created the material world, but could not exclude Ahriman and his ministers from its deep opaque elements. Ormuzd created a bull, the symbol of life, which Ahriman slew. From its blood grew the original plants and animals, to harass and destroy which Ahriman made wolves, tigers, serpents, and venomous insects. From its bleached elementary particles grew the ribas tree, into the stems of which Ormuzd infused the breath of life, and they became the first man and the first woman; but every human being is tempted through his whole career by Ahriman and his devs, which slip into the body and produce all diseases, and into the mind and produce all malice. While human life thus hangs wavering between two antagonistic agencies, each of which would be infinite but for the other, it is declared that ultimately Ahriman shall be overpowered, driven through torrents of melted lead, purified, and forgiven, and Ormuzd shall reign supreme.-In the ancient Egyptian religion, Seth (or Typhon) was the manifestation of the abstract idea of evil, as Osiris was of good. It is abundantly illustrated in the early sculptures that they were regarded as brothers, as parts of the same divine system, and both worshipped as gods. The emblems were designed to show that good and evil affected the world equally, and existed together as a necessary condition of human existence; thus the Indian systems had admitted both the creator and destroyer as characters of the divine being. So nearly equal in esteem were Seth and Osiris, that their names are sometimes interchanged as if synonymous in the titles of the older kings; and Seth is represented in attend ance with other gods pouring from a vase the symbols of life and power over the newly crowned king. At a later period, probably through the influence of foreigners from Asia, evil was resolved into sin; Seth was confounded with the snake-giant Apophis, the enemy of gods and men; and the brother of Osiris no longer received divine honors. His name and square-eared figure were effaced; he ceased to be esteemed a necessary antagonistic companion to Osiris, and was regarded as acting in opposition from his own free will, as Ahriman opposed Ormuzd, or as the Manichæan Satan opposed God; and he was expelled from the Egyptian pantheon, perhaps in the time of the 22d dynasty. The representation of the great serpent Apophis, the symbol of sin, as pierced by the spear of Atmoo (or Horus), may have been the antetype of the python slain by Apollo.-Demons first appear distinctly in the religious world of the Greeks, in the "Works and Days" of Hesiod. In Homer they are not distinguished from the gods, and the name is applied to the Olympian divinities. The Homeric personages most nearly corresponding to the oriental and mediæval demons are the Titans, the representatives of force acting against the divine government, and especially Ate, the representative of guile and mischief. Ate is the

power that tempts and misleads men to their own cost and ruin, as they afterward find out. She may even tempt the Deity also, for she beguiles Jupiter himself when Hercules is about to be born (Iliad, xix. 95). Mr. Gladstone thinks her traditionally connected with the Hebrew conception of the Evil One, and says that her nature and function are best expressed by the English word "temptress." Hesiod makes the demons generically different from the gods, but yet essentially good. They were, according to him, the long departed golden race of men, who after death had become guardian terrestrial demons, watching unseen over the conduct of mankind, with the regal privilege, granted by Zeus, of dispensing wealth and taking account of good and bad deeds. They formed the intermediate agents and police between the gods and men. The demon of Socrates is an eminent example of faith in a ministering and benevolent spirit, specially devoted to the welfare of a single person, and inspiring him with wisdom; and bears resemblance to the guardian angels in Christian conception, and to the familiar spirits of medieval magicians. The Hesiodic creed received an important modification from the later philosophers. Empedocles first introduced the distinction of beneficent and maleficent demons, with every grade of each; and was followed by Xenocrates, Plato, Chrysippus, and Plutarch. Perhaps the reckless and half wicked silver race which Hesiod represents as buried in the under world, where, though not recognized as demons, they nevertheless had a name, dignity, and substantive existence, may have been the germ of the conception of perverse and malignant demons. This modification of the doctrine, as Plutarch says, relieved the philosopher from great difficulties in the consideration of divine providence, since many phenomena which could hardly be attributed to the gods, could thus be explained by referring them to the agency of demons. The old myths had erred in assigning to the great divinities proceedings inconsistent with their dignity; and both the truth of the legends and the exaltation of the divine character were saved by supposing that the terrific combats, Titanic convulsions, the abductions, flights, concealments, and other discreditable mythological actions, had been the work of bad demons, who were far beneath and unworthy the notice of the tranquil and immortal gods. The objectionable religious mysteries and ceremonies, too, which custom retained, were necessary as the only means of appeasing, not the gods, but the malignant demons. This distinction served an important purpose in the first controversies between paganism and Christianity, the Christian writers, as Clement and Tatian, finding ample warrant in the earlier pagan authors for treating all the gods as demons, and in the later for denouncing the demons generally as evil beings. The insensible change which had taken place in the meaning of the word was thus overlooked, and it could be answered by the pagan authors

that the audience of Empedocles would repudiate one branch of the Christian statement, and that of Hesiod the other. How many of the minor Greek divinities were latterly included in popular conception or even by the philosophers among demons is indeterminate, but the early Christians traced the whole system of paganism to the agency of Satan, making all the characters of the mythology fallen angels. The pagan demons were long lived, but not immortal; Plutarch records, "Great Pan is dead;" and it is a very ancient belief that the oracles became dumb at our Saviour's birth.-In the angelology of the Jews the distinction between upright and fallen spirits appears clearly in many passages of the Old Testament, though at a later period it was corrupted by popular superstitions. With the mingling of Jewish and Hellenic ideas in the first Christian centuries, and with the speculations especially of the Alexandrian philosophers, began the manifold developments in the doctrine of demons by the cabalists and other students of the black art, which were increased by the introduction of foreign elements from the Scandinavian mythology, from the Saracens of Spain, and from the Orient through the returning crusaders, and formed the complicated and fantastic systems that in the middle ages were important elements alike in popular belief, poetry, and magic. From the Saracens were derived the djinns of Arabian and Persian romance, and from the Northmen came a knowledge of Loki, the calumniator of the gods, the grand contriver of deceit and fraud, who is beautiful in figure, but whose mind is evil, and who is unsurpassed in the arts of perfidy; in vengeance for his stratagems against gods and men he has, according to the Edda, been seized and confined in a cavern formed of 3 keen edged stones, where he rages with a violence which causes all the earthquakes, and where he shall remain captive till the end of the ages, when he shall be slain by the doorkeeper of the gods. The Talmudists say that Adam had a wife called Lilis, before he married Eve, and that of her he begat nothing but devils. This Lilis or Lilith was a famous medieval witch, and is introduced by Goethe in the Walpurgis night scene in "Faust." The cabalists made Adam the natural king of the world of spirits prior to his fall, and described Solomon as a most accomplished magician. They people the fire, air, earth, and water with salamanders, sylphs, gnomes, and undines, to one of which classes all evil spiritual agencies belong. This classification appears to have been borrowed from Michael Psellus, a Byzantine writer of the 11th century, who however reckoned 6 classes. Other writers made 9 kinds of demons, the same number that Dionysius made of angels. The 1st rank consists of the false gods of the gentiles, whose prince is Beelzebub; the 2d, of liars and equivocators, as the Pythian Apollo; the 3d, of inventors of mischief and vessels of anger, whose prince is Belial; the 4th, of maliVOL. VI.-24

cious revenging devils, whose prince is Asmodeus; the 5th, of cozeners, as magicians and witches, whose prince is Satan; the 6th, of those aërial devils spoken of in the Apocalypse who corrupt the air and cause plagues, thunders, and fires, and whose prince is Meresin; the 7th is a destroyer, causing wars, tumults, combustions, uproars, who is mentioned in the Apocalypse, and called Abaddon; the 8th is that accusing, calumniating devil, called Diabolus, that drives men to despair; the 9th embraces tempters of several sorts, whose prince is Mammon. Gregorius Tolosanus makes 7 kinds of ethereal spirits, according to the number of the 7 planets, and esteems the good angels to be those which are above and the demons those which are below the moon. Marsilius Ficinus made devils the 6th in his 9 classes of intelligent beings. Wierus, a celebrated demonographer of the 16th century, in his Pseudomonarchia Dæmonum, following old authorities, establishes a complete infernal court, with its princes, nobles, officers, and dignities. According to him, Satan is no longer the sovereign of hell, but Beelzebub reigns in his place. The following is an outline of the court: Beelzebub, supreme chief of the infernal empire, founder of the order of the fly; Satan, leader of the opposition; Eurynomus, prince of death, and grand cross of the order of the fly; Moloch, prince of the realm of tears, grand cross of the order; Pluto, prince of fire; Leonard, grand master of the sabbats, knight of the fly; Baalberith, master of alliances; Proserpine, archdevil, sovereign princess of malignant spirits; Nergal, chief of the privy police; Baal, commander-in-chief of the infernal armies, grand cross of the order; Leviathan, lord admiral, knight of the fly; Belphegor, ambassador in France; Mammon, ambassador in England; Belial, ambassador in Turkey; Rimmon, ambassador in Russia; Thamuz, ambassador in Spain; Hutgin, ambassador in Italy; Martinet, ambassador in Switzerland; Lucifer, highest officer of justice; Alastor, executive officer in great undertakings; Nisroch, chief cook; Behemoth, chief cup-bearer; Dagon, chief pantler; Mullin, chief valet de chambre; Kobal, director of spectacles and amusements; Asmodeus, superintendent of gambling-houses; Nybbas, master of pageants; Antichrist, conjurer and necromancer. According to Paracelsus, the air is not so full of flies in summer as it is at all times of invisible devils. Not so much as a hair's breadth is free from them in heaven, earth, or waters, above or under the earth. Yet the sublunary spirits who alone interfere in human life have no power over the stars and heavens; they could not seduce the moon from its orbit, turn the planets from their courses, or stop rivers; they are confined beneath the moon till the day of judgment, and can work no further than God and the four elements permit them. Demons and sorcerers celebrate their nocturnal orgies in an assembly called the sabbat, which was first convened, say some cabalists, by the great Orpheus. Others, however, derive it from