D'EWES, SIR SYMONDS, an English antiquary, born in Coxden, Dorsetshire, Dec. 18, 1602, died April 18, 1650. He was admitted to the bar, but never practised law, and lived on his property at Stow Hall, in Suffolk. He was high sheriff of Suffolk in 1639, and was one of the Puritan members expelled from the house of commons by "Pride's purge." He commenced collecting materials for a history of England at the age of 18, and though the fruits of his research were not published by him, they were of great use to Selden and other writers. After his death a valuable compilation of his was given to the world by his nephew Paul Bowes, under the title of "The Journals of all the Parliaments during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth" (folio, London, 1682). His "Autobiography and Correspondence," edited by J. O. Halliwell (2 vols. 8vo., London, 1845), contains some interesting pictures of his times and contemporaries, intermixed with much that is useless and with a comical display of vanity.

DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT, a German theologian and biblical critic, born at Ulla near Weimar, Jan. 14, 1780, died at Basel, June 16, 1849. Having studied at Weimar and Jena, he was appointed professor of philosophy, and subsequently of theology, at Heidelberg, and received in 1810 a professorship at the university of Berlin. This situation he lost in consequence of a letter of consolation written to the mother of Sand, the murderer of Kotzebue, which was regarded by the government as extenuating this act of political fanaticism. He retired to Weimar, and was afterward elected professor of theology by the university of Basel. Here he met with an undisturbed acknowledgment of his merits, was made citizen of Basel, member of the committee of education, and shortly before his death rector of the university. De Wette distinguished himself by his lectures and sermons as well as by numerous works. The latter belong to the most remarkable productions of German theological science and criticism. The most important of them are: "Contributions to an Introduction to the Old Testament" (2 vols., 1806-'7); "Commentary on the Psalms" (1811); "Manual of Jewish Archæology" (1814); "Religion and Theology" (1815); "Christian Dogmatics" (2 vols., 1813, 1816); "Critical and Historical Introduction to the Old and New Testaments" (1817-26; the Introduction to the Old Testament was translated and enlarged by Theodore Parker, Boston, 1843, 2d ed. 1858; and that to the New, by Frederic Frothingham, Boston, 1858); "Christian Morality" (3 vols., 1819-21); "Theodore, or the Sceptic's Conversion" (1822; translated by James F. Clarke, Boston, 1841); "Lectures on Practical Ethics" (1823; translated by Samuel Osgood, Boston, 1842); Opuscula Theologica (1830); "The Essence of Christian Faith" (1846); a new translation of the Bible, executed together with Augusti in 6 vols. (1809-'14); and an unfinished edition of Luther's works.-LUDWIG, son of the preceding, born at Berlin about

1814, published a "Journey through the United States and Canada in 1837" (Leipsic, 1838).

DEWEY, CHESTER, D.D., LL.D., an American clergyman and teacher, born at Sheffield, Mass., Oct. 25, 1784. He was graduated at Williams college in 1806; studied for the ministry; was licensed to preach in 1808, and during the latter half of that year officiated in Tyringham in western Massachusetts. The same year he accepted a tutorship in Williams college, and in 1810 was appointed professor of mathematics and natural philosophy, an office which he discharged for 17 years. During his connection with the college he did much to advance the standard of scholarship, and enlarge the course of study in his own and kindred departments. Over the students his influence was often beneficially exerted. Between 1827 and 1836 he was principal of the "Gymnasium," a high school for boys in Pittsfield, Mass., and in the latter year he removed to Rochester, where he was principal of the Rochester collegiate institute until 1850, when he was elected professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in the university of Rochester, which position he still holds. Professor Dewey has been a frequent contributor to the "American Journal of Science and Arts," and is the author of several special botanical treatises, including a "History of the Herbaceous Plants of Massachusetts," written for the state government. Until recently he has been in the habit of employing his vacations in lecturing at the medical colleges of Pittsfield and Woodstock, Vt. In the course of his long career as a teacher of youth he has delivered over 4,000 lectures, and preached nearly as many sermons. He has effected much for the advancement of public schools, and was active in the establishment of the "Teachers' Institute," of which he has been president.

DEWEY, ORVILLE, D.D., an American clergyman, born at Sheffield, Mass., March 28, 1794, was graduated at Williams college in 1814; pursued his divinity studies at Andover theological seminary from 1816 to 1819; preached 8 months as agent for the American education society; declined an immediate and permanent settlement on account of unfixed opinions in theology, but accepted a temporary call at Gloucester, Cape Ann (with a candid explanation of his unsettled views), and here became a Unitarian; soon after became an assistant of Dr. Channing, preaching two years in his pulpit, and forming with him a life-long intimacy; in 1823 accepted the pastorate of the Unitarian church in New Bedford, where he remained 10 years, until, broken in health, he sought restoration in his first voyage to Europe, June, 1833. The "Old World and the New" (2 vols., 1836), one of the freshest and most instructive records of travel, contains the history of his two years' absence. In 1835 he was called to the 2d Unitarian church in New York, which, during his ministry, built the "church of the Messiah," and became a very large and prosperous society. In 1842, his health

again failing, he went abroad for two years, and returning in 1844 to his post, was compelled by continued ill health to dissolve his connection with his church in 1848, and retire to his paternal farm in Sheffield, long and piously preserved by him, at great sacrifices, for the use of his mother and sisters. Here he devoted the remnants of his strength to the preparation of a course of lectures for the Lowell institute at Boston, on the "Problem of Human Life and Destiny," which was repeated twice in New York, and in Brooklyn, New Bedford, Baltimore, Washington, Charleston, St. Louis, Louisville, Nashville, Madison, Cincinnati, and Sheffield. This course was followed, in 1855, by another Lowell course on the "Education of the Human Race," which was almost as widely repeated. Meanwhile he filled the Unitarian pulpit in Albany one winter, and in Washington two. In 1858 he was again settled as pastor over the Unitarian society in Church Green, Boston, known as the "New South," where he now is. The first book which Dr. Dewey published was a little work, which made a noise in its day, entitled "Letters on Revivals." During his ministry at New Bedford he contributed much to the "Christian Examiner" and the "North American Review." On leaving New Bedford, he published a volume of sermons, which produced a marked sensation. His various works since have been collected and published in 3 vols. (New York, 1847). They consist of "Discourses on Human Nature," "Discourses on Human Life," ""Discourses on the Nature of Religion," "Discourses on Commerce and Business, ""Miscellaneous and Occasional Discourses, ""The Unitarian Belief," "Discourses and Reviews," including several articles which first appeared in the "Christian Examiner." His works have been reprinted in London, 1844, in an octavo volume of nearly 900 pages.-The application of religion to the whole sphere of human life is the characteristic of Dr. Dewey's writings, and the central purpose of his mind. For this work he is admirably fitted both by native endowment and the discipline of experience. His writings exhibit a philosophical tendency, much practical knowledge, wide and lively sympathies, and rare dramatic talent. As a pulpit orator, he enjoys a high reputation for earnestness, originality, and power of impres

sion.

DE WITT. I. AS. E. co. of Texas, drained by the Guadalupe river; area, 898 sq. m.; pop. in 1858, 3,786, of whom 1,189 were slaves. It abounds in fine scenery, and has a hilly or rolling surface. The soil, particularly in the valley of the Guadalupe, is fertile. In 1850 it produced 547 bales of cotton, and 67,560 bushels of corn. Value of real estate in 1858, $545,000. The county was named in honor of De Witt, an empresario under the Mexican government of what was called De Witt's colony. Capital, Clinton. II. A central co. of Illinois, mostly level, comprising forests of valuable timber and fertile prairies, remarkably easy of cultivation;

area, 675 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 18,508. In 1850 the productions were 704,600 bushels of corn, 22,401 of wheat, 45,737 of oats, 2,083 tons of hay, and 18,833 lbs. of wool. There were 6 churches. Bituminous coal is the chief mineral product. The county was named in honor of De Witt Clinton. Capital, Clinton.

DE WITT, JAN, a Dutch statesman, born in Dort, Sept. 1625, murdered at the Hague, Aug. 20, 1672. From his father, who had been a member of the states of Holland, he inherited republican principles opposed to the power of the house of Orange, which had been regarded with suspicion from the time of Barneveldt. In 1652 he became grand pensionary of Holland, an office which gave him great influence in the federal assembly of the Seven United Provinces; and he immediately exerted himself to break up that combination of offices in the hands of the princes of Orange, which had made their power almost sovereign. The last stadtholder had died in 1650, and his son, afterward William III. of England, was an infant; and at this favorable time the party of De Witt succeeded in abolishing the office of stadtholder, and declaring the statesgeneral supreme. In 1654 he negotiated the peace of Westminster with Cromwell, by a secret article of which the members of the house of Orange were in future excluded from the highest offices of state. After the restoration of Charles II., England declared war against Holland; but though her arms were at first successful, the sagacity of De Witt restored the fortunes of his countrymen, and obliged her to sue for peace. The negotiations were hastened by the appearance of De Ruyter with a powerful fleet in the Thames, where he burned the English shipping in the Medway; and a treaty was concluded at Breda in July, 1667. When the aggrandizing policy of Louis XIV. began to aim at the possession of the Spanish Netherlands, De Witt became obnoxious to a strong party in the state, which sought to elevate William of Orange to the dignity of his ancestors. He hastened to form a triple alliance with Sweden and England, but violated the federal constitution by causing the treaty to be at once ratified by the states-general, instead of being first referred to the council of each province. Though the measure may have been justified by the emergency, it was a principal cause of the hostility to De Witt. Louis XIV. succeeded in detaching England from the alliance, and in forming a counter alliance between England and France against Holland; and in 1672 the United Provinces were invaded by French armies, which advanced nearly to Amsterdam. The blame was thrown on the grand pensionary; and by the popular voice the young prince of Orange was called to command the Dutch forces by land and sea, and was nominated stadtholder. Cornelius, the brother of Jan De Witt, was suspected of having plotted against the life of the prince, and was imprisoned at the Hague. The grand pensionary resigned his office, went to visit his brother, and perished with him by the violence

of a mob. His abilities and exemplary private character were applauded even by his political opponents. His principal political work, on the "True Interest and Political Maxims of the Republic of Holland," was translated into English by Dr. Campbell (London, 1746).

DEXTER, SAMUEL, an American statesman and jurist, born in Boston in 1761, died while on a journey at Athens, N. Y., in 1816. He was graduated at Harvard university in 1781, with the highest honors of his class, and received in 1813 the degree of LL.D. from the same university. Immediately after leaving college he began the study of law, and being admitted to the bar in 1784, after some years of practice in Lunenburg, in Chelmsford, in Billerica, and in Charlestown, he removed to Boston, and had his home there during the remainder of his life. He was repeatedly chosen to the legislature of Massachusetts, and in 1798 was elected senator of the United States. While senator he was appointed secretary of war by John Adams in 1800, and in the same year secretary of the treasury. He was afterward, at different times, offered foreign missions, but always refused them. About the year 1802 he withdrew from political life, and returned to his profession; and there he occupied a high, and in some respects the highest place. He was not regarded as a man of extensive professional learning, or as eloquent in the ordinary sense of that term; but he was well acquainted with the leading principles of law, and possessed the faculty of learning rapidly and well all that was needed in any particular case, by study in rem. While he seldom indulged in figures or ornaments of any kind, his powers of argument were almost irresistible. He was often spoken of as "the lawyer for desperate cases," because no case seemed desperate in his hands. As a politician he was in early life a decided federalist; and he never approved all the principles or doings of the republican party of that day. He argued against the validity of the embargo with all his strength, and always maintained the unconstitutionality of that measure. But, on the other hand, he differed from his party in reference to the war of 1812. While, however, he left his own party, he could not be said to have joined the other; and when they nominated him as the republican candidate for governor, in 1814, he immediately published an address to the electors of Massachusetts, in which he declared that he did not belong to the party which had nominated him, and differed radically from them. He was, how ever, retained as their candidate; and his competitor, Gen. Brooks, the candidate of the federalists, was elected by a majority of only 2,000 out of 47,000 votes. He was the first president of the first society formed in Massachusetts for the promotion of temperance.

DEXTRINE, also known as BRITISH GUM, a soluble variety of starch, obtained by boiling starch in water, or heating it to the temperature of 392°, or by the action upon it of diastase or acids. In the malting of grain it is pro

duced with the forming of the sprout, the diastase and acetic acid first appearing, and then converting the starch of the grain into dextrine, from which it passes into sugar, and this into alcohol. When starch is boiled to produce this gum for stiffening linens, its change into sugar may be effected by continuing the boiling. No change in the chemical composition takes place in this process, but the alteration is probably in the arrangement of the particles among themselves. In both starch and dextrine the constituents are, carbon 12 atoms, and hydrogen and oxygen 10 atoms each. Grape sugar, into which they pass, differs from them only by taking another atom of hydrogen and oxygen, or, what is the same thing, one atom of water. Dextrine forms a mucilaginous solution with hot or cold water, from which it is precipitated by alcohol. It is prepared in France to considerable extent from potato starch, to be afterward fermented and converted into brandy. It is also used by the French pastry cooks and confectioners. In medicine it may serve the same uses as gum arabic, and in surgery it is applied to the preparation of bandages for fractures. For this purpose it is triturated with of its weight of camphorated spirit, till it acquires the consistency of honey. Water is then added, and the bandage is immersed in the mixture. As British or "artificial" gum, it is employed by the calico printers for thickening their colors. It is sold in the form of a brilliant white powder, as a mucilage, and in lumps like those of natural gums. Its smell and taste of potato oil distinguishes it from gum arabic, and it differs from natural gums in not forming mucic acid by the action of nitric acid, and in being convertible into grape sugar. The name is derived from its property of turning more than any other body the plane of polarization to the right hand side.

DEY, in Algiers, from 1600 to 1710, the commander of the armies of the state, subject to a pasha appointed by the Porte. In 1710 the dignity of pasha was united with that of dey, and the dey was the highest officer of Algiers from that time till the conquest of the country by the French in 1830.

DEYRA DOON, or DEHRA DOON, a fertile valley of British India, between the S. W. base of the lowest and outermost ridge of the Himalayas, and the N. E. slope of the Sewalik mountains, the former having an elevation of 7,000 or 8,000 feet, and the latter of about 3,000; lat. 30° and 30° 32′ N., long. 77° 43′ and 78° 24′ E.; area, 673 sq. m.; length, 5 m.; breadth, from 15 to 20 m. It is bounded S. E. by the Ganges and N. by the Jumna, is drained by their tributaries, and with the hilly region called Jounsar Bawur forms a district under the lieutenant-governorship of the N. W. provinces. The productions are rice, maize, grain, cotton, sugar, opium, indigo, plantain, and hemp. Every English plant is said to thrive luxuriantly, and considerable success has attended the cultivation of tea. The climate during part of the year is

very unhealthy. This district was formerly part of the dominions of the rajah of Gurhwal, was overrun by the Goorkhas in 1803, and in 1815, during the Nepaul war, was invaded by the British, who suffered great loss here, and who, after the expulsion of the Goorkhas, kept possession of the territory.-DEYRA, the principal town of the district, is situated in the midst of dense mango groves, at the intersection of 2 routes of trade, 2,369 feet above the sea.

DEZFOOL, DEZFUL, or DEZPHOUL, a city of Persia, in the province of Khoozistan, on the eastern bank of a river of the same name; pop. estimated at 15,000. It is the principal mart of the province, and has a fine bridge of 22 arches, said to have been built by command of the celebrated Sapor. About 10 miles S. W. from the city are mounds of ruins which cover the site of the ancient city of Susa.

D'HILLIERS. See BARAGUAY D'HILLIERS. DIABETES, GLUCOSURIA, DIABETES MELLITUS, GLUCOHEMIA (Gr. diaßaivo, to pass through), a disease characterized by an excessive secretion of saccharine urine. Though disease marked by diuresis and attended with wasting of the body was frequently spoken of by earlier authors, Willis (1659) was the first who noted the distinctive character of the complaint, the presence of sugar in that fluid. Since his time diabetes, which is not a very rare complaint, has been frequently made a subject of study, yet still a great deal of obscurity envelops its causes, its essential character, and its treatment. The invasion of diabetes is commonly insidious. The attention of the patient is perhaps first attracted by the quantity of urine he passes and by the frequent calls to void it, or he notices that while his appetite is greatly increased he is growing weaker and thinner. If the urine be now examined, it is found to be not only greatly increased in quantity, but somewhat changed in appearance; it is paler, transparent when first passed, and assumes on standing an opalescent tint like the whey of milk or a solution of honey in water. It has no odor, or a somewhat aromatic one, compared by some to that of new-made hay, by Dr. Watson to that of a room in which apples have been kept. If kept for a few days at a moderately elevated temperature, instead of acquiring an ammoniacal odor like ordinary urine, it has a sharp vinous smell, and will be found to be acid rather than alkaline. The urine has commonly a decidedly sweet taste; drops of it upon the patient's linen or clothes stiffen them like starch, and sometimes leave on evaporation a powdery efflorescence. The specific gravity of the urine is greatly augmented; instead of being from 1.015 to 1.020, as is commonly the case, it ranges from 1.025 to 1.050; M. Bouchardat reports it even as high as 1.074. Two or three simple and easily applied tests are sufficient to render the presence of sugar certain. In what is called Trommer's test, a drop or two of the solution of the sulphate of copper is added to a little of the urine in a test tube; a solution of caustic potash is

now added in excess, and the mixture gently boiled over a spirit lamp for a few minutes; if sugar is present, a precipitate of a reddish or yellowish brown (suboxide of copper) will be thrown down, otherwise the precipitate will be black (common oxide). In Moore's test, a little of the suspected urine is mixed in a test tube with about its volume of liquor potassæ, and the mixture boiled for 5 minutes; if sugar be present, the fluid will acquire a brown hue, otherwise it remains unchanged. A 3d test is founded on the fact that diabetic urine rapidly undergoes fermentation when mixed with a little yeast and kept in a warm place. The sugar to which diabetic urine owes its peculiar properties exists in the form of glucose or grape sugar. This is present in all proportions, from a mere trace to 30, 50, and even 134 parts in 1,000. The quantity of solid matter thus drained from the system is very great; Dr. Thomas Watson estimates it on the average at 14 lbs. per day, but it sometimes amounts to many times this quantity; and it is this drain of solid matter, together with the large amount of urine passed, which gives rise to the constant thirst and the enormous appetite of diabetic patients. Early in the disease, as was before observed, the symptoms are not well marked; when the complaint is established, and the large excretion of urine begins to attract attention, the patient complains that despite his excessive appetite he grows thinner and weaker; the mouth is pasty, the skin dry and hard, the bowels constipated. The digestive functions, at first normal, become deranged; the patient is troubled with heartburn, with a feeling of weight and pain in the epigastrium, sometimes with vomiting. The strength declines, the patient becomes emaciated, the generative functions are impaired or lost; vision often becomes dim, the gums are spongy, there is tenderness and swelling about the orifice of the urethra, the memory and intellect fail, and the temper becomes irritable. In the course of the disease pulmonary consumption is very apt to supervene and carry off the patient. Toward the last, diarrhoea, fetid breath, effusion into the great cavities, and oedema of the extremities, precede death. Diabetes is essentially a chronic disease, lasting often many years; it is also an obstinate and intractable one, although most of the cases seem benefited by treatment, and sometimes it would appear to be completely cured.-Treatment. In the beginning of the present century Dr. Rollo found that the amount of urine in diabetic patients as well as its sweetness was very much diminished by confining them to an animal diet. When the ready conversion of starch into grape sugar became known, this was assumed to be the origin of the sugar, and the benefit derived from an exclusively animal diet was thus explained. Unfortunately, few patients have the resolution to restrict themselves for any length of time to such a diet, and even when persevered in it is found to be merely palliative. The experiments of C. Bernard have thrown a new light

upon the subject. He has ascertained that sugar is a normal secretion of the liver in all classes of animals, carnivorous as well as herbivorous; that it takes place in the liver of the foetus as well as in that of the adult; that irritating the origin of the 8th pair of nerves in the 4th ventricle increases the secretion of sugar, producing an artificial diabetes. In a state of health the normal secretion of sugar poured into the circulation by the hepatic veins is rapidly decomposed and excreted by the lungs; when the amount is increased by disease, the excess passes off by the kidneys. Under the influence of diastase, sugar is likewise formed from the starch of the food in the process of digestion, as a necessary preliminary to its absorption. When diabetic patients are placed upon an animal diet, this source of supply is cut off, and the amount of sugar in the urine is diminished, but it is still present, since the liver keeps up the supply. M. Mialhe, influenced by the theoretic belief that sugar in the course of the circulation is decomposed under the influence of the alkalinity of the blood, and that in diabetes the blood is deficient in alkalinity either positively or relatively to the amount of sugar contained in it, recommends the use of the bicarbonate of soda in large doses. He recommends a dram to be taken 3 times a day, morning, noon, and night; this is gradually increased until from 180 to 270 grains are taken in the course of the day. In addition, the patient is directed to take Vichy water with his meals, and is recommended to drink lime water to the extent of 2 or 3 pints daily. He is permitted to indulge in the ordinary variety in his diet, but the quantity of farinacea is reduced or at least. Flannel is ordered to be worn next the skin; the vapor bath is administered 2 or 3 times a week. By these means M. Mialhe reports a number of cases to have been cured. Dr. A. Clark of New York (New York "Medical and Surgical Journal," Jan. 1859) reports several cases of diabetes either cured or greatly benefited by the use of bicarbonate of soda and of blisters to the nape of the neck. Dr. Clark administered the soda in doses of 11 grains, to be taken as frequently as could be borne until the urine was rendered alkaline or the stomach was nauseated. Beside the alkaline treatment, the means principally relied on have been restricting the quantity of farinaceous matter in the patient's diet as far as possible, indulging him in watery vegetables (spinach, turnips, cabbage, &c.) rather than in bread or potatoes, and the use of opium. This last remedy allays the nervous irritability of the patient, and diminishes the thirst and the amount of the urinary secretion.

DIAGNOSIS (Gr. diayvwois, examination, decision), a term in medicine indicating that department of pathology whose object is the distinguishing of diseases by the knowledge of their special pathognomonic signs. To distinguish a disease under all its various forms, and when complicated by symptoms of other affections, is

of the first importance in practical medicine, and requires all the acuteness and discrimination of the physician; without a correct diagnosis, treatment must be empirical and hazardous. A mere acquaintance with the symptoms of each disease cannot enable the physician to make his diagnosis. These symptoms are given briefly under the different diseases; diagnosis will be treated here only as a branch of general pathology. Of the symptoms of disease, some are characteristic and pathognomonic, essential and always present; some are common to other diseases, and are of value only when taken in connection with the former class. Examples of the former are the eruptions of the exanthemata, and the mobility of the ends of broken bones; of the latter, the increased frequency of the pulse, heat of the skin, and thirst, common to many different diseased states. A physician must know how to examine and interrogate a patient, to use his own senses of sight, hearing, and touch, to sift the statements of attendants, to weigh justly positive and negative signs; which he can only learn by a knowledge of anatomy and pathology, by experience at the bedside, by an acquaintance with the physiological functions of organs, and by familiarity with the physical examinations of the sick. His fingers must be educated to a sensibility equal to that of the blind man's; his ear, armed with the stethoscope, must hear the first footsteps of disease in the heart and lungs, or the first murmur of life in the gravid uterus; his eyes, assisted by the microscope, must follow the course of morbid growths back even into the primary structure of the cell; he must press, percuss, and measure with the greatest delicacy and exactness; he must be familiar with chemical reactions, in order to detect and neutralize poisons, and arrest the formation of dangerous precipitates in the nutrient and excrementitious fluids. By this manner of interrogating and examining, both by physical and rational signs, every organ and function, the seat, extent, and nature of the disease are ascertained; and it is in making a diagnosis, more than in the treatment, that one physician excels another; for though a blind exhibition of remedies may occasionally be successful in arresting disease, it must be obvious to every reasoning mind that a knowledge of the disease is the first and great essential to its rational treatment. There are many causes which render the diagnosis of disease difficult and uncertain-such as the advanced stage at which many affections are seen; the unusual predominance of certain merely sympathetic phenomena, which mask the primary lesion; the occurrence of new and anomalous types of disease; the complication with other diseases; and the tender age, imbecility, insanity, dissimulation, and deceit of patients. It must be evident from this, what a union of rare faculties and varied acquirements is necessary to enable a physician to make a correct diagnosis of disease; and also that, without this primary result, all speculation as to its progress and termination is mere con