of Elizabeth, to whom he exposed the feebleness of Spain in her colonies and promised treasures and conquests. He set sail from Plymouth, Dec. 13, 1577, with 5 vessels and 164 gentlemen and sailors, to follow the route which had been traced by Magellan. While in Port San Julian on the coast of Patagonia, he put to death Captain Doughtie, a good sailor and brave officer, and a gentleman of birth and education, who was charged with having conspired against the life of the admiral. Directing his course to the N., Drake pillaged the Spanish settlements of Peru and Chili, captured a royal galleon richly laden with plate, and took possession of California in the name of the queen of England, and then, burdened with gold, sated with vengeance, and fearing to meet the Spaniards in superior force if he returned upon his steps, he sought to find by the N. E. a passage back to the Atlantic. Being repelled by the severe cold, he changed his purpose, and determined to make the circuit of the globe. He traversed the Pacific ocean, the archipelago of the Spice islands, the Indian ocean, doubled the cape of Good Hope, and arrived at Plymouth, Sept 26, 1579. Elizabeth received him with favor, and 4 months afterward knighted him, and partook of a banquet on board of his ship. The rupture which followed between Elizabeth and Philip II. gave Drake a new opportunity to gratify his animosity against Spain, and within one year he captured and plundered Carthagena and several other towns, burned the forts of San Antonio and Saint Augustine, and visited and brought away with him the remains of the colony which Raleigh had planted in Virginia. In 1587 he was placed in command of a fleet of about 30 sail designed to attack the Spanish ports. He destroyed 100 ships in the harbor of Cadiz, an exploit which he spoke of as singeing the king of Spain's beard, and soon after captured an immense carrack, from papers in which the English first learned the value of the East India traffic, and the mode of carrying it on. In 1588, as vice-admiral, he commanded one squadron of the fleet by which, with the assistance of the elements, the "invincible armada " was annihilated. In 1589 he ravaged the coasts of the Spanish peninsula, leaving fearful traces of his passage, and in 1592 and 1593 was a member of parliament for Plymouth. In 1594, a report having reached England that Spain was preparing against that country a fleet more numerous and powerful than the armada, he again entered the service against his old enemy. Convinced that the West Indies was the point where Spain could be best attacked, he sailed for America in 1595 with 26 vessels, in company with Admiral Hawkins. A divided command produced its usual bad results, and their first attempts were unharmonious and fruitless. At Porto Rico Admiral Hawkins died, either of a wound or of chagrin, and Drake then in the region where his first anger against Spain had been kindled gained new triumphs. He burned Santa Marta, Rancheria, Nombre de Dios, and Rio Hacha; but a

fatal malady broke out among his sailors, and as he heard of the defeat of a division of his forces which he had sent to operate by land, he himself fell sick, and died from the combined effects of fever and of mental agitation on account of the reverses of the expedition. His body received a sailor's funeral in sight of Puerto Bello, and was buried in the sea. Admiral Drake was one of the founders of the naval greatness of England; and though in his spirit and conduct there was something of the buccaneer, he was yet one of the most daring and efficient of naval commanders.

DRAKE, JOSEPH RODMAN, an American poet, born in New York, Aug. 7, 1795, died Sept. 21, 1820. He lost his father in early life, and with 3 sisters struggled against adversity. He studied medicine, and his marriage in 1816, shortly after taking his degree, placed him in affluence. He travelled in Europe, and after his return in 1819 contributed under the signature of "Croaker many pleasant and effective verses to the columns of the "New York Evening Post." His friend Fitz-Greene Halleck joined him in this series, signing his own pieces at first "Croaker jr.," but soon they both adopted the signature of "Croaker and co." The novelist Cooper was also one of the intimate associates of Drake, and a conversation between them as to the poetical uses of American rivers, in the absence of historical associatious such as belong to the streams of the old world, was the occasion of Drake's longest and most imaginative poem, the "Culprit Fay." It was his aim to conjure up in this fanciful production all the associations of natural life and beauty which gather around a sylvan scene, and to show how the earth, the air, the sea, the field, the wave, the moonlight, are in themselves vital with poetical images and meaning. Though Drake had written verses from his boyhood, yet the poems which gave him his wide reputation as a writer of genius and taste were all the productions of a single season. His health failing, he passed the winter of 1819 in New Orleans, hoping to be benefited by the milder climate. But the progress of the consumption which had smitten him could not be arrested, and he lived but a short time after his return to New York in the spring. His death called forth a beautiful poetical tribute from his friend Halleck.

DRAKE, NATHAN, an English physician and miscellaneous writer, born in York in 1766, died in Hadleigh, June 7, 1836. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and practised his profession in Hadleigh from 1792 till his death, during which time he was a frequent contributor to literary and medical periodicals. His works are numerous; they include "Shakespeare and his Times" (2 vols. 4to., London, 1817), and various criticisms and illustrations of the writings of the age of Queen Anne.

DRAKE, SAMUEL GARDNER, an American author, born at Pittsfield, N. H., Oct. 11, 1798. He was educated at the common schools of the neighborhood, and between the ages of 20 and

27 was a district school teacher. Subsequently he removed to Boston, and in 1828 established an antiquarian book store, one of the first of its class in the United States. In 1825 his literary and antiquarian labors commenced with the republication with notes of Church's "Entertaining History of King Philip's War," of which several editions have since appeared. In 1833 he reprinted 5 old tracts, which, with the preceding work, comprise, in his opinion, all that can be recovered in relation to King Philip's war. In 1832 appeared his "Indian Biography," and in 1833 the "Book of the Indians, or History and Biography of the Indians of North America," a work of high authority for facts, and of which the 11th edition, much enlarged, appeared in 1851. His remaining publications on Indian history are "Old Indian Chronicles" (Boston, 1836), "Indian Captivities" (Boston 1839), and "Tragedies of the Wilderness" (Boston, 1841). Since 1847 he has edited the "New England Historical and Genealogical Register," which, under the direction of a historical and genealogical society in Boston of which he is president, has contained many valuable contributions to local and family history. His latest work is an elaborate history of Boston in 1 vol. royal 8vo. DRAKENBERG, CHRISTIAN JACOBSEN, a Norwegian, remarkable for his long life, born in Blomsholm, Nov. 18, 1626, died in Aarhuus, Oct. 9, 1772, at the age of 145 years and more than 10 months. The son of a sea captain, he himself led a seafaring life till 1717, when he abandoned it on account of the dimness of his eyesight, though his strength and vigor were undiminished. In 1732 he was residing in Copenhagen, and his advanced age having been disputed by persons who judged from his looks that he was younger, he indignantly set off to procure his baptismal certificate, and having for that purpose performed a long journey through Sweden chiefly on foot, reappeared with his documentary proof at Copenhagen. He was married in 1737, and in 1759 still continued to exercise much in walking, and retained extraordinary strength. He died after a gentle sickness of 13 days. He was of medium stature, passionate, but rather temperate, with a good appearance and address.

DRAMA (Gr. Spaua, from Spaw, to make), a story represented by action. The principle of imitation is inherent in human nature; painting, sculpture, and the drama must be coeval with society, and have been practised in some form by almost every nation. Among the South sea islanders a rude kind of drama was discovered, In China the drama dates its origin to remote ages. The war dance of the Indian and the African, intermingled with pantomimic descriptions of the preparations for battle, the stealthy advance upon the foe, the combat, and the death of the enemy, greeted with applause from the excited spectators, is essentially a dramatic exhibition, although wordless. But that form of the drama accepted and followed in Europe, divided chiefly into tragedy and comedy, was the crea

tion of the Greeks about 700 B. C. The religious festivals of Bacchus were believed to have been introduced into Greece by Melampus, In the Bacchic ritual an ode in honor of the god was recited; and to produce the best ode, the one which should be selected by the priests to be inserted into their ceremony, became a favorite contest among the poets of the time. A goat was either the principal sacrifice at the altar, or the prize awarded to the successful competitor; thus from the two words rpayos and woŋ, the ode for the goat, came the Greek word rpaywdia, tragedy. In like manner, at the rustic festivals or harvest homes of the Greeks, semi-religious ceremonies, composed of odes and dances in honor of Bacchus, were enacted. These odes, being of a more genial and comic character, consistent with the occasion of an agricultural triumph, were called κwpwdia, comedy, from Kwμn, village, and won, song, the song of the village. Some writers are of opinion that the word comedy originally signified drama, and had not the distinctive sense in which we apply it, but included tragedies and theatrical representations of every kind.-The earliest known form of drama is the dithyrambus, a hymn in honor of Bacchus, sung by a chorus of voices, accompanied by music, expressive gesture, and dances. In 562 B. C., Susarion, a native of Megara, appeared at Athens, where he, as a single speaker, recited an ode. In 536 B. C., Thespis, a native of Icaria, recited an ode with responses made to him by a dithyrambic chorus; in this we faintly perceive the first germ of dialogue. Such were the rude elements found by Eschylus in 499 B. C., and out of them he alone and unaided created and perfected the drama as we now behold it. Nothing essential has since been added to its structure; he seems to have forestalled future ages of invention, and to have left nothing undone. He removed the chorus into the background, and used them only as an auxiliary. He brought a second actor upon the scene, and introduced dialogue; thus the drama became an action instead of a narrative. He invented scenery, costume, and machinery, of a grandeur unknown to our stage. Banishing the lewd and Bacchanalian character from the dithyrambic hymn, he supplied its place with pure tragedy, simple and grand in its form, noble and dignified in its object. From his works were gathered those rules called the unities, referred to by Aristotle; indeed, he may be truly said to have found the drama chaos, and left it a world. These changes were wrought within the space of 30 years, and so rapidly were they accomplished, that they were at the time regarded as the work of inspiration. The expansion he gave to the drama caused the Athenians to build the great theatre of Bacchus, the Lenaion, the former theatre having broken down under the pressure of the people gathered into it to witness a representation in which Eschylus and Pratinas were rivals. Thirty years later, Sophocles introduced a third actor, and thus diffused the dialogue and

fertilized the action. As a dramatic poet he surpassed Æschylus by a noble grace and a sweet majesty, which were wanting to the Titanic father of the drama. Fifteen years afterward Euripides enabled Greece to behold as contemporaries the three greatest purely tragic poets the world has produced. In reviewing their works we must remember that Eschylus was the creator of that fanciful world which Sophocles and Euripides so wonderfully cultivated. The dramas of Eschylus are dark, gloomy, and terrible; thunder and lightning are their atmosphere, and demigods their dramatis persona; his human beings are gigantic in moral stature, and removed above our sympathies. Sophocles, more human but not less divine, drew human nature as it ought to be. Euripides, descending still further, depicted men and women as they were. The origin of the drama is popularly but erroneously ascribed to Thespis. This improvisatore did no more than improve upon the dithyrambus; he first organized a regular chorus, and invented dances of peculiar energy and grace; but his performances were a kind of ballet farce. Of tragedy he had no idea.-The tragedy of the Greeks was a fable or a series of events begotten of each other in a natural sequence. It began with a simple position, so selected that the auditor required no explanation to understand the present condition of matters or persons; it was a simple beginning. The development of the characters was required to be simultaneous with the action, the one being involved in the other. The action should not stray from the one place beyond such a limit as the time employed in the performance might naturally permit; nor should a lapse of time take place during the piece beyond the limit of one day. These unities of action, place, and time, however, so strenuously insisted upon by the French dramatists, were not strictly observed by the Greeks, nor were they considered essential, for Eschylus himself did not always observe them. Aristotle refers indistinctly to the unity of action; he says in reference to the unity of time: "Tragedy endeavors as much as possible to restrict itself to a single revolution of the sun.' ." Of the unity of place he says nothing. The Greek tragedy was composed in trilogies, or 3 distinct plays, continuations of each other; such, for example, was the trilogy of Eschylus, formed of the Agamemnon, the Choëphoroi, and the "Furies." In the 1st, Agamemnon, returning from the siege of Troy, is murdered by his wife Clytemnestra; in the 2d, Orestes, Agamemnon's son, avenges his father by the slaughter of his mother; in the 3d, Orestes is pursued by the Furies for this unnatural deed; the gods cannot agree upon his case until Minerva decides in his favor, and releases him from the torture of the avenging divinities. These 3 subjects conjoined formed a complete action, divided into a thesis, an antithesis, and a synthesis.-The early history of comedy is more obscure than that of tragedy. The earliest comic poet of whom we have remains is Aristophanes, who flourished a

century after Eschylus. He was the last of what was called the old school. Comedy was divided into 3 forms, the old, the middle, and the new. In the first or old comedy, the characters were real living personages, who, under their real names, were freely satirized. This license was soon so abused that a law was passed forbidding the names of real personages to be used in comedy. This impediment produced the second or middle comedy, where the prohibition was evaded by giving fictitious names to real characters, and distinguishing the individual intended to be satirized by a mask or by some unmistakable inference. The middle comedy lasted about 50 years, when it was superseded by the 3d or new comedy; in this form the characters and the subject were fictitious, and as the old satirized and ridiculed statesmen, orators, and generals under their real names, so the new was aimed at abstract vice, and not at the individual offender. As tragedy descended from the contemplation of divine matters to depict and sympathize with human woes, it gradually lost its grandeur and depreciated. So, also, as comedy divested itself of its direct influence upon men and things, and from a statesman became a philosopher, it lost its pith and power.The list of dithyrambic poets preceding Eschylus from 700 to 525 B. C. includes Archilochus, Simonides, Lasus, Arion, Stesichorus, Solon, Susarion, Hipponax, Theognis, Thespis (birth of Eschylus). Afterward came Chorilus, Phrynichus, Epicharmus, Eschylus (invents the drama, and first exhibits 499 B. C.), Chionides, Sophocles (first victory 468 B. C.), Euripides (first exhibits 455 B. C.), Cratinus, Aristarchus, Ion, Crates, Achæus, Melanippides, Pherecrates, Phrynichus the comic poet, Lysippus, Eupolis, Aristophanes (427 B. C.), Agathon, Xenocles, Ameipsias, Sannyrion, Astydamas, Antiphanes, Theopompus, Eubulus, Alexis, Heraclides, Menander (first exhibits 321 B. C.), after whom the Greek drama died obscurely.— The Romans derived their drama from the Greeks. Terence, Plautus, and Seneca are the only Latin dramatists worthy of mention, and these are but translators and imitators of the Greek. The only element introduced by the Romans into the drama was farce, an invention of the Tuscans; buffoonery became more popular than wit. In truth the Roman people took little pleasure in pure intellectual amusement, and what the poet was to the Greek the gladiator was to the Roman. The coarser Roman preferred to watch the agonies of the body suffered in the circus, rather than sympathize with the woes of the soul simulated in the theatre. Thus ended the first or classic age of the drama. The second, or romantic age, gave its first indication of existence in the 12th century, when dramatic performances called entremets were introduced, as the word implies, between the services at royal banquets and carousals. These entremets soon became pageants, masks, and mummeries, and lasted as distinct dramatic entertainments up to the period of Shakespeare. Simultaneously

a dramatic composition called a Mystery, usually founded on passages of Scripture, was introduced and became a popular exhibition on saints' days. Subjects from the Bible, rudely treated in the form of a dialogue between the holy personages, were represented on a stage erected in the church or church yard, the priests and acolytes being the actors. These performances were carried to an abuse, and they became so blasphemous a scandal that they were suppressed. The next form of drama was the Morality, bearing a relation to the mystery similar to that between the new and old comedy of the Greeks. The morality was aimed at abstract vice, its action was a fable, its characters typical.--In the 15th and 16th centuries Histories began to be 'written-long, rambling pieces of action without form or object, but introducing rudely the design of that romantic drama destined to so wondrous a perfection under the minds of Shakespeare and his colleagues. As the classic drama was derived from the dithyramb, a pure poetic germ, subsequently developed into action, the romantic drama was derived from the pageant, mask, or mummery, a pantomimic germ, subsequently developed into poetry. In the first the action is subservient to the passion; in the second the passion is subservient to the action. Thus we find Shakespeare borrows his plots from Boccaccio, and makes his passions fit under these forms, where his characters rather encumber than assist the intrigue. In the Elizabethan age the romantic drama sprang at once into existence; and as in the single life of Eschylus the classical or Greek drama passed from infancy to maturity, so Shakespeare and his colleagues raised the romantic or Gothic drama from rudeness to the highest perfection it has ever achieved. In the romantic drama the unities of time, place, and action are not observed. The poet is allowed unbridled license; prose and poetry may be mingled without rule or reason, beyond the aptitude of each to the moment and the character. In the Greek mind the sense of form was very acute; we see it in their architecture, sculpture, and poetry; we have it in their social and political institutions. The Greek taste demanded grace of outline, proportion of parts to the whole, and was so extremely sensitive to this element in art, that we find it in all things Greek which remain to us. The Gothic mind is eminently defective in this sense. The only ideas of form we have are derived from study of the ancient models, and are not inherent in us. Reckless of form, therefore, Shakespeare depicted characters and developed passions, flung them into groups, hurried them through the action, over the possible and the impossible, and landed them on a catastrophe not prepared by design, but which suited his convenience. His works present a glorious intellectual anarchy in which he has had no follower, for the reason that no mind of less power than his own could contend with the confusion he so marvellously controls. The romantic dramatists greatly excelled their clas

sic rivals in the rich coloring of their characters; they drew men more like imperfect human beings and less like inspired statuary; and if less noble in contour, they were more truly flesh and blood. The Shakespearean characters are constructed piecemeal out of the small imperfections and humors that make up human nature; the Greek heroes are made of one piece, one passion. The English dramatists of this age gave originality at least to the form of the romantic drama, and, whatever its faults, it was new. The French and Italian poets clung to the Greek models; Corneille and Racine were but faint and poor imitators of Euripides; Alfieri affected the same ancient simplicity. As students of the Greek, their individual merit is great; but having had no share in the progress of the drama, they have no prominent place in its history. The Italians and Spaniards at this period contrived a species of performance, part pantomime, part farce, part comedy of intrigue. It was derived from those Italian narrators of whom Boccaccio is the best type, and represented dramatically those short and pithy tales in which Margaret of Navarre was wont to take such delight. Lope de Vega was the first to inaugurate this comedy of intrigue; it was quickly imitated and greatly improved by the French, who by admitting more Italian elements gave it variety and scope. Hardy, Rotron, and Corneille, Scarron and Quinault, prepared the public taste for Molière, who truly founded and made the second or middle age of comedy, as Shakespeare and his colleagues made the first or old. Comedy at this time mainly occupied the stage. In England the four great masters, Wycherly, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Farquhar, brought forth the prose drama. If inferior to Molière, they were less tainted with that leaning toward Greek classicality which has always retarded the true progress of the drama in France. The most original of Molière's works is the Bourgeois gentilhomme, because in its form and treatment he has exhibited more freedom from scholastic trammel. In the beginning of the 18th century the sentimental drama, a mixture of comedy and tragedy, a weak solution, obtained great popularity, but cannot be considered a forward movement in the art. In Germany this drama obtained great popularity under Kotzebue, and at the same time a wild, mythic, philosophical dramatic form of poem was created by Goethe and Schiller. These poets have rather embellished dramatic literature than added to the development or progress of the drama as an art. Lessing, who preceded them, may be said to have founded the German drama, but he attempted no reform. The next and last great step which the drama has made, and one that has become prominent in the present age, is the invention of opera, or a drama in which music takes the place of poetry, and the dramatic action is subservient to a new musical development. It is a mistake to presume that an opera is a musical drama. The musical form of an opera and its dramatic treatment are essentially different from

the form and treatment of a drama based on the same fable. There is also in the form of the music, apart from the libretto, a plan and proportion to which the drama must be subservient.-Among the various minor forms of the modern drama are melodrama, farce, vaudeville, and pantomime. Melodrama owes its invention to the laws which restricted the performance of tragedies and comedies to certain privileged theatres. Booths were erected in which were performed serious pantomimes, or dramas with out words, accompanied throughout with expressive music. By degrees the actors ventured a few extempore phrases or jests. This license was gradually extended, until dialogue was regularly introduced, and the music was only used to accompany the movement of the actors. Melodrama is now understood to be a drama wherein the passion and development of character are subservient to the action and plot; whereas tragedy is a drama where the action and plot are subservient to the passion and development of character. Farce is a humorous piece of buffoonery, in which probability may be outraged both in the incidents and character, and stands in relation to comedy as melodrama does to tragedy. Vaudeville is an invention of the French stage. Schlegel states that "vaudeville is only a variation of comic opera;" bnt it is essentially a different thing, and was in no manner derived from it, nor has it ever been connected with it. It has its name from vau de Vire, which was originally a satirical song containing a keen, witty thought, and applicable to some popular person or event. It was a lyric epigram invented in that part of Normandy called Vire, and carried thence to Paris, where these musical satires became the vogue. Presently the writers of small comedies threw their keenest epigrams into verse, by which they gave them more point and drew to them more attention; these verses might be sung to any air that would happily suit them, and were called vaudevilles. The comic pieces through which they were scattered eventually received the name. When the work is but slightly speckled with these musical epigrams, it is distinguished as a comédie vaudeville, or a drame vaudeville. Pantomime is a drama without language, composed of gesture accompanied with music. It is probably the most ancient form of drama, and has changed less in its essential form than any other. The most perfect and most elegant kind of pantomime is the ballet, where graceful dances are interspersed amid the pantomimic action.-No work of the mind possesses such charms for the author as the drama; the combination of poetry, music, oratory, sculpture, and painting, represents an army of muses which almost every literary aspirant desires to command; but few are found adequate to the task. The first difficulty consists in the selection of a subject fit for dramatic treatment. Many fables read well, that lose the appearance of life when deprived of the peculiar charms of narrative, and given in dialogue. In the dramatist's

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language, "they will not act." Having secured a fit theme, it should be examined to see if it be agreeable. Thus in tragic subjects horror should be distinguished from terror. Horror has in it something repulsive; it has the ingredients of disgust to distinguish it from terror, which possesses a charm most attractive, having the ingredient of pity mingled in its sentiment. Provided with an appropriate subject, the dramatist must proceed to select a good beginning. If in his first act he has to employ his characters in long explanations of that part of his story which precedes the rising of the curtain, then has he made a beginning in the middle, as it were, and his drama is taking place off the stage, instead of upon it; for the mind of the auditor is fixed upon a scene described, and the action of the play ceases to give place to narrative; if he can find no means of avoiding these explanations, then he must consider that his subject is not susceptible of a good dramatic form. Having begun well, the action must never pause, and it must be continuous, for in this continuity is the secret of interest; it betrays an object which, though kept out of sight, is palpably ahead. As the plot proceeds, it should embrace nothing but what is essential to its support; whatever may be the beauty of an episode, it is a distraction, and has always more charms for the author than the auditor. Shakespeare triumphed over this fault so often that he has done great damage to the English dramatist by his example. At a certain proportionate distance from the end of the work comes the climax or catastrophe, toward which achievement all the action conspires. This event generally occupies the latter half of the 4th act in a 5 act play. The 5th is used to bring the fable in all its parts to a simple and clear conclusion, leaving a sense of completeness in the mind, where nothing remains to be desired or told.-A further account of the dramatic literature of each nation will be found under the titles of the respective countries. See also ESCHYLUS, ALFIERI, CALDERON DE LA BARCA, CORNEILLE, GOETHE, GOLDONI, LESSING, LOPE DE VEGA, MOLIÈRE, RACINE, SCHILLER, and SHAKESPEARE.

DRAMMEN, a commercial town of Norway, situated on the southern coast, in the province of Aggershuus, 20 m. S. W. from Christiania; pop. in 1855, 9,916. It lies on both sides of the river Drammen, and is composed of 3 small villages, separated from each other by natural limits. The commerce of which Drammen is the centre gives it the third rank among the cities of Norway, but in respect to its timber trade it stands first. It manufactures tobacco, earthenware, sail cloth, rope, carriages, leather, &c.; and beside timber, which is exported chiefly to Great Britain, France, and Holland, has a commerce in iron ware and agricultural produce. About 40,000 tons of shipping are annually employed in its port. It suffered considerably in 1850 and 1857 from conflagrations.

DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM, an American chemist and physiologist, born near Liverpool,