England, May 5, 1811. He received his early education at the Wesleyan Methodist school at Woodhouse Grove, an institution for the sons of clergymen of that denomination, of which his father was one. Having here acquired the rudiments of knowledge, his maturer education was intrusted to private instructors; and while thus employed, he devoted much attention to chemistry and natural philosophy, a partiality for which he imbibed from his father, who made these pursuits a relaxation from his clerical duties. The higher mathematics were also a part of his early training, and his writings denote their successful cultivation. He subsequently went to the university of London, where he had the opportunity of prosecnting his chemical studies under the late Dr. Turner. Some of Dr. Draper's ancestors had been attracted to America before the revolution, and a greater part of his family connections followed at later periods, and in 1833 he came over to join them. He then continued his chemical and medical studies at the university of Pennsylvania, where he took the degree of M.D. in 1836, and with the rare distinction that his thesis was announced at commencement as having been selected for publication by the medical faculty. A few weeks after, he received the appointment of professor of chemistry, natural philosophy, and physiology in Hampden-Sidney college, Virginia, in which institution he remained until 1839. During his residence there his time was occupied in original chemical and physiological investigations, many of the latter appearing in the "American Journal of Medical Sciences." From Hampden-Sidney college Dr. Draper was called to the chair of chemistry and natural history in the academic department of the university of the city of New York, where, beside instruction in those branches, he has delivered lectures to the advanced undergraduates upon physiology. In 1841 he was appointed professor of chemistry in the university medical college, which forms the medical department of the city university, having coöperated with 5 others (Drs. Valentine Mott, Granville S. Pattison, John W. Revere, Gunning S. Bedford, and Martyn Paine, who were simultaneously elected professors) in establishing that very flourishing school of medicine; and in 1850 physiology was added to the chair of chemistry. These relations to the academic and medical departments of the university have been continued without interruption to the present time; and it is also worthy of remark, as illustrating his industry, that he has acted throughout as the medical faculty's secretary, and since 1850 as their presiding officer. As an instructor, Dr. Draper stands in the very first rank, and to his rich variety of attainments unites all the important elements of a public speaker. Although his researches have been mostly experimental, involving therefore great labor and cost, he has written voluminously and with high reputation. Beside contributions to various other scientific journals, he furnished to the "Edinburgh Philo

sophical Journal" between the years 1837 and 1857 about 40 treatises, principally on topics previously little understood. He is the author of many literary works, reviews, &c., but for the most part published anonymonsly; of a "Treatise on the Forces which produce the Organization of Plants" (4to., New York, 1844); of a popular "Text Book on Chemistry" (12mo., New York, 1846), and another on "Natural Philosphy" (8vo., New York, 1847), which consist of excerpts from his courses of lectures. His last and most elaborate work is a treatise on "Human Physiology, Statical and Dynamical; or the Conditions and Course of the Life of Man " (8vo., New York, 1856, and a new edition, 1858). DRAPER, SIR WILLIAM, an English officer, born in Bristol in 1721, died in Bath, Jan. 8, 1787. He was educated at Eton and Cambridge, entered the army, won distinction in the East Indies, obtained a colonelcy in 1760, acted as brigadier at the capture of Belle Isle in 1761, and led the land forces at the taking of Manila in 1763. The Spaniards ransomed the latter place by the promise of £1,000,000, which was never paid, and Sir William corresponded long but unprofitably on the subject with his own and the Spanish governments. For his services, however, he was made knight of the bath. When the first of the "Junius" letters appeared in Jan. 1769, he came forward under his own name in defence of his friend the marquis of Granby. Junius replied with marvellous skill and sharpness; two more letters passed on each side, and Sir William then retired from a contest which had endangered his good name, damaged the cause of his friend, and heightened his opponent's reputation. Six months afterward, when he saw these letters republished, he appeared twice again in print to complain of their injustice, and was again worsted by his anonymous antagonist. During the same year he visited America, where he was married to Miss De Lancey of New York. In 1779 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of Minorca, and on the surrender of that island brought 29 charges against the governor, Murray, for all but 2 of which he was obliged to offer an apology.

DRAUGHTS, a game played by 2 persons, on a checkered board like the chess-board, with 12 or 20 pieces on each side, which capture each other by angular movements governed by certain rules, until the game ends by one player losing all his pieces, or by both players getting their pieces into positions from which they cannot be taken. In America the game is commonly called checkers. In France it is known as le jeu de dames, in Italy as dama, in Germany as Damen; all which terms are commonly supposed to have their origin in some fancied adaptation of the game as a pastime for women. But as it has been played in Egypt for more than 4,000 years, and made its appearance in Europe only 3 or 4 centuries ago when there was much intercourse between southern Europe and Alexandria and other Egyptian ports, before the passage to India round the cape of Good

Hope replaced that through the isthmus of Suez, it is probable that the Egyptian-Arabic name of the game, dameh, is the source of its appellations in French, Italian, and German. In Polish, the game has, beside that of dama, a foreign designation, arcaby or warcaby, supposed to be of oriental origin. In Spanish, the word ajedrez, applied to both chess and draughts, is also of eastern derivation, and appears to be nearly equivalent to the American term checkers.-The origin of the game is uncertain. It is supposed to have preceded chess, and is certainly of very high antiquity, for in Egypt, as appears from the monumental paintings, it was a common amusement in the reigns of the Osirtasens, 2000 B. C. It was played as now with pieces, all of which on the same board were alike in size and form, though on different boards they varied in shape, some being small, others large and rounded at the top or carved into human heads. The kind used by King Rhamses, 1311 B. C., who is represented on the walls of his palace at Thebes playing at draughts with the ladies of his household, resembled small ninepins, and seem to have been about 1 inches high, standing on a circular base of half an inch in diameter. Some have been found of ivory, 14 inches high and 1 in diameter, with a small knob at the top. The opposite sets of pieces were distinguished sometimes by their color and sometimes by their form, one set being black, the other white or red, or one set having round, the other flat tops. It is uncertain how the Egyptians played the game, though from the position of some of the pieces in the paintings it would seem that they did not take backward, as is done in the Polish game of draughts. The modern Egyptians, who use pieces similar to those used by their predecessors, play the game as it is generally played in Europe and America. By the Greeks the invention of draughts, as well as of dice and many other things, was poetically ascribed to Palamedes, one of the heroes of the expedition against Troy, 1193 B. C. Plato, however, attributes the invention to the Egyptian Theuth. Homer, in the 1st book of the Odyssey, describing Minerva's arrival at the palace of Ulysses in Ithaca, says: "There she found the haughty suitors; some of them were amusing themselves before the gates with draughts, sitting upon the hides of oxen which they themselves had slain." There is reason to believe, however, that the game mentioned by the Greek writers was a species of backgammon.-In playing draughts, the board is placed with an upper white corner on the right hand. Each player places his pieces on the 3 lines of squares nearest to him. In England the white squares are played upon; in Scotland and America the black squares are generally selected. The game is begun by each player moving alternately one of his men along the diagonal on which they are first placed, one square at a time to the right or the left. When 2 hostile pieces encounter each other, the one that has the move may take the other, if there be a vacant square of the color played upon behind it,

by leaping over the other into that square. The piece leaped over is removed from the board. If several pieces on forward diagonals should be exposed by having alternate open squares behind them, they may all be taken at once, and the taking piece placed on the square behind the last piece captured. When a piece has reached one of the 4 squares of the extreme opposite row, it becomes a king, and is crowned by placing one of the captured pieces upon it. Kings can move backward as well as forward, though only one square at a time. The principal laws of the game are these: if a piece is touched, it must be moved, if a move be possible; the player who has the move must take a piece which is exposed to capture; if he neglects to take it, his adversary may remove from the board the piece with which the capture should have been made; but a player has no right to decline to take under any circumstances. The first move of each game is to be taken by the players in turn; if lots are drawn for the move, he who gains the choice may move first or require his adversary to move. In Polish draughts, a variety of the game played not only in Poland, but in other parts of the continent of Europe, and sometimes in England and America, the pieces are moved forward as in the English form of the game, but in taking they move like the kings of the English game, either backward or forward. The kings in the Polish game have the privilege of passing over several squares at one time, and even over the whole length of the diagonal when no pieces obstruct the move. Polish draughts is sometimes played with 40 pieces on a board divided into 100 squares.-M. Mallet, a celebrated professor of mathematics, published a treatise on draughts at Paris in 1668. Another teacher of mathematics, William Paine, published at London in 1756 an "Introduction to the Game of Draughts." The best work on the subject is the "Guide to the Game of Draughts," by Joshua Sturges (London, 1800), of which an improved edition appeared in 1835, the whole of which, with additions, is comprised in the "Handbook of Games" which forms one of the volumes of "Bohn's Scientific Library " (London, 1850).

DRAVE (Ger. Drau; Hung. Dráva; anc. Dravus), one of the principal tributaries of the Danube, rises from 2 sources situated in the E. portion of the Tyrol. In its upper part it is a small and extremely rapid river, with craggy and overhanging banks, but it becomes navigable at Villach, and flows with a slow current through a low and marshy country, through S. Styria, where it washes the walls of Marburg and Friedau, then along the S. border of Hungary, which it separates from Croatia and Slavonia, till it enters the Danube 14 m. E. from Eszek, as a large and powerful stream, after a course of 360 m. Its navigation above Völkermarkt is obstructed by various falls and cataracts. The most important of its numerous affluents is the Mur, the largest river in Styria. Lienz in Tyrol, Villach, Pettau, Warasdin, and Eszek, are among

the chief towns situated on its banks. One of the most interesting uses of the Drave is that to which the Hungarian peasants put it, who descend it on rafts of empty barrels after having disposed of their wine in the mountains of Carinthia.

DRAWING, the representation or delineation of objects, either as they appear to the eye, or as projected on assumed planes, or as designated by conventional signs having a certain similarity to the appearance of the objects themselves. The painter, with free hand, draws or sketches objects in their visible and natural forms; the mechanical or architectural draughtsman projects, according to certain established rules and principles, objects existing or designed; while from the notes of the surveyor the topographical draughtsman plots the surface of a field or locality, with its natural and artificial objects represented somewhat as they would appear projected on a transparent plane above them, but with certain conventionalities to express more definitely certain features. Architectural and mechanical drawing is in general the delineation of objects by geometric or orthographic projection. Since the surfaces of all bodies may be considered to be composed of points, the first step is to represent the position of a point in space, by referring it to planes whose position is established. In general these planes are assumed at right angles to each other, and the points projected upon them to make up the drawings of the plan, end and side elevation. Let a brick be held flatwise in the corner of a rectangular box, with its sides parallel to the various sides of the box; if now from the several corners of the brick perpendiculars be let fall upon the adjacent sides, the points thus found will be the orthographic projections of the corners; and if these points be connected by corresponding lines, there will be outlines of the brick under 3 views or projections: upon the bottom of the box a rectangle 8 by 4 inches, being the plan of the brick; upon one side a rectangle 8 by 24 inches, the side elevation; on the other side a rectangle 4 by 24 inches, the end elevation. If the brick be inclined to either or all of the sides of the box, the projected out lines will be varied; but the same rule for determining the position of points obtains, viz.: by letting fall perpendiculars on the planes to which they are referred. The orthographic projection of any object in outline is the shadow it would cast on a plane perpendicular to the rays of the sun, if held between it and the sun. Simple objects in general may be defined by 2 views, a plan and elevation; but often, to illustrate the construction of the interior, sections are necessary, that is, the appearances that might be presented were the objects cut by planes; all portions that would be thus absolutely cut, are designated by filling up the outline with a quantity of inclined parallel straight lines, at equal intervals from each other; should there be distinct parts in section, in contact with each other, to prevent confusion

the different sections are expressed by lines inclined in opposite directions. In most architectural and mechanical constructions it would be obviously impossible that they could be drawn full size. Scales are therefore made use of in which fractional parts represent wholes. The scale in most common use in architectural drawings is that of of an inch to the foot, or

of the lineal dimensions; in mechanical drawings, or full size, that is, as usually understood, or of the lineal dimensions. Beside these scales, the divisions of one inch or foot are very numerous, according to the purposes for which the drawing is designed. Working drawings of machines, or those intended to be used in construction, are generally laid off to as large a scale as possible; they are mostly outline drawings, consisting of lines to indicate the form of the object represented. The roundness, fulness, or obliquity of the individual surfaces is not indicated by the lines, although it may be generally inferred from the relation of the different views of the same part. The direct significance of an outline drawing is often considerably increased by strengthening those lines which indicate the contours of surfaces resting in the shadow. That all parts may be shadelined according to one uniform rule, the light is supposed to fall upon the object obliquely at an angle of 45°, that the horizontal and vertical lines may be relieved equally. In general the light is supposed to fall, as it were, from the upper left hand corner of the paper diagonally, and the same rule is followed in the more finished drawings where both shade and shadow are introduced. As a means of avoiding the indefiniteness presented by mere outline, recourse is had frequently to the mere shading of the parts of a machine or edifice, usually done with color and a brush. In architectural drawings, a complete picture is often attempted with all the appliances of shade and shadow, intended to show the artistic effect of the construction. Color is introduced not unfrequently in both mechanical and architectural drawings, to show the material of which the construction is composed; in these cases it is usual to imitate somewhat the natural color of the substances-wood with burnt sienna, brick with Indian red, wrought iron with Prussian or indigo blue, cast iron with a dark blue tint, shading off to a green. -Beside orthographic projection, architects, for the representation both of exterior and interior of edifices, frequently make use of perspective, and mechanical draughtsmen, for the better understanding of the parts of a machine than by separate plans and elevations, unite them by the rules of isometrical drawing. The science of perspective is the representation by geometrical rules, on a plane surface, of objects as they appear to the eye from an assumed point of view. All the points of the surface of a body are visible by means of luminous rays proceeding from these points to the eye, forming a cone of rays. The intersection of these rays by an intervening transparent plane is the perspective projection

of these points, the rules for the projection of which mechanically are simple and well established. The supposed transparent plane is called the plane of projection or plane of the picture. The horizon of the picture is the horizontal line resulting from the intersection of the plane of the picture by a horizontal plane passing through the eye. Point of view or point of sight is the point where the eye is supposed to be placed. Vanishing points are points in a picture to which all lines converge that are in the object parallel to each other. An object is said to be in parallel perspective when one of its sides is parallel to the plane of the picture-in angular perspective when none of its sides are so. Isometrical drawing implies that the measures of the representations of the lines forming the sides of each face are equal. The principle of isometrical projection consists in selecting for the plane of the projection one equally inclined to 3 principal axes at right angles to each other, so that all straight lines coincident or parallel to these axes are drawn in projection to the same scale. To draw a cube in isometrical projection, with a radius equal to one side of the cube, describe a circle, inscribe a regular hexagon, and connect alternate angles by lines to the centre; the hexagon will be divided into 4 quadrilaterals, each of which will represent a face of the cube; all the lines will be equal, and equal to the side of the cube. On these lines can be set off distances as in orthographic projection, but only upon these lines, or those parallel thereto. Curved or inclined lines are therefore to be established by reference to these lines, and not by direct measure of the lines themselves. Isometrical drawing is especially valuable to the mechanical draughtsman, embracing as it does the applicability of a scale with pictorial representation. In drawings for the patent office it is of very general application. Topographical drawing is the delineation of the surface of a locality, with the natural and artificial objects, as houses, roads, rivers, hills, &c., upon it, in their relative dimensions and positions; giving as it were in miniature a copy of the field, farm, district, &c., as it would be seen by the eye moving over it. Many of the objects thus to be represented can be defined by regular and mathematical lines, but many other objects, from their irregularity of outline and their insignificance in extent, would be very difficult to distinguish. Certain signs have therefore been adopted into general use among draughtsmen, some of which resemble in some degree the objects for which they stand, while others are purely conventional. Sand is represented by fine dots, gravel by coarser dots; meadow or grass line is represented by tufts of little perpendicular lines; trees, although not consonant with the other parts of the plan, are represented often in elevation, at other times by clumps of foliage in plan, sometimes distinctive in their foliage; dwellings and edifices usually in plan, made distinctive by some small prefix, as a pair of scales for a court house, a sign post for a tav

ern, a horse shoe for a smithy, a church with a cross or steeple, &c. The localities of mines are represented by the signs of the planets which were anciently associated with various metals, and a black circle or dot for coal. Hills are represented by 2 methods, the vertical and the horizontal. In the first the strokes of the pen follow the course the water would take in running down the slopes, the strokes being made heavier the steeper the inclination; and systems have been proposed and used by which the inclination is defined by the comparative thickness of the line and the intervening spaces. In the system proposed for the U. S. coast survey, slopes of 75° are represented by a proportion of black to white of 9 to 2, and so down by 9 grades to a slope of 23°, in which the proportion is 1 black to 10 white. By the horizontal method, or by contours, hills are represented by horizontal lines traced round them, such as would be shown on the ground by water rising by equal vertical stages. The choice of a scale for a plot depends in a great measure on the purpose for which the plan is intended. Plans of house lots are usually named as being so many feet to the inch, plots of surveys so many chains to the inch, maps or surveys of states so many miles to the inch, and maps of railway surveys as so many feet to the inch, or so many inches to the mile. In the U. S. coast survey all the scales are expressed fractionally and decimally. The scales of small harbor charts vary from 1: 5,000 to 1: 60,000; that of charts of bays and sounds is usually 1 to 80,000, of general coast charts 1 to 400,000. In the U. S. engineer service the following scales are prescribed: general plans of building, 1: 120; maps of ground with horizontal curves, 1 : 600; topograhical maps comprising 14 miles square, 1m. to 2 ft., or 1: 2,640; 3 miles square, 1 : 5,280; between 4 and 8 miles, 1: 10,560; 9 miles square, 1: 15,840; not exceeding 24 miles square, 1:31,680; 50 miles square, 1: 63,360; 100 miles square, 1:126,720; surveys of roads and canals, 1: 600. In the plotting of sections, as of railway cuttings, a horizontal or base line is drawn, on which are laid off the stations or distances at which levels have been taken; at these points perpendiculars or ordinates are erected, and upon them are marked the heights of ground above base, and the marks are joined by straight lines. To express rock in a cut, it is generally represented by parallel inclined lines; rivers by horizontal lines, or better colored in blue; the depth of sounding in a mud bottom by a mass of dots. Since it would be in general impossible to express the variations of the surface of the ground in the same scale as that adopted for the plan, it is usual to make the vertical scale larger than that of the horizontal lines in the proportion of 10 or 20 to 1.-Topographical features are represented as effectively by the brush and water colors as by the pen. Colors are used conventionally. Thus in the practice of the French military engineers, woods are represented by yellow, gamboge with a very little

indigo; grass land green, gamboge and indigo; cultivated land brown, lake, gamboge, and a little India ink or burnt sienna; adjoining fields are slightly varied in tint; gardens, by patches of green and brown; uncultivated land, marbled green and light brown; brush, brambles, &c., marbled green and yellow; vineyards, purple; sands, a light brown; lakes and rivers, a light blue; seas, a dark blue, with a little yellow added; roads, brown; hills, greenish brown. In addition to the conventional colors, a sort of imitation of the conventional signs already explained is introduced with the. brush, and shadows are almost invariably introduced. Topographical drawings receive the light, the same as architectural and mechanical drawings, from the upper left hand corner. Hills are shaded, not as they would appear in nature, but on the conventional system of making the slopes darker in proportion to their steepness, the summit of the highest ranges being left white. Topographical drawings embrace but a small portion of surface, and are therefore plotted directly from measures; but in geographical maps, embracing at times a great extent of country, various projections are made use of to express as nearly as possible a spherical surface upon a plane. These species of projection are generally included under the head of mapping, and belong to the province of geography.

DRAYTON, MICHAEL, an English poet, born in Hartshill, or Harshull, in the parish of Atherston, Warwickshire, in 1563, died in 1631. His life is involved in obscurity. It is said that he was the son of a butcher, was a page to a person of rank, was maintained for some time at Oxford by Sir Henry Goodere, held a commission in the army, and witnessed the defeat of the Spanish armada; but none of these statements are well supported. In 1626 he was poet laureate. He found patrons in Sir Walter Aston and the earl of Dorset, but he never became wealthy or powerful, though respected for his virtues and talent. It is not easy to discover the order of his various poems, some of which were published without date. The best known is his "Poly-olbion," a descriptive poem on England, her legends, antiquities, and productions, the first 18 books of which were published in 1613, and the whole 30 in 1622. Among his other works are "Harmony of the Church, containing the spiritual Songs and holy Hymns of godly Men, Patriarchs, and Prophets" (4to., 1591, only one copy of which edition is known to exist; and 8vo., London, 1843, edited by Dyce); "Idea, the Shepherd's Garland, and Roland's Sacrifice to the Nine Muses" (4to., 1593), the second of which was reissued under the title of "Pastorals;" "Mortimeriados" (4to., 1596), reprinted under the title of the "Barons' Wars;" .99 66 England's Heroical Epistles" (8vo., 1598); the "Legend of Great Cromwell" (4to., 1607); "Battle of Agincourt" (folio, 1627); "Muses' Elysium" (4to., 1630); numerous legends, sonnets, &c., mostly printed in collections; and "Nymphidia, the Court of Fairy," edited

by Sir E. Brydges (Kent, 1814). The last is one of his most admirable productions. His historical poems are dignified, full of fine descriptions, and rich in true poetic spirit, and his "Poly-olbion " is moreover so accurate as to be quoted as authority by antiquaries. Notes to the first portion of it were written by Selden. He was buried in Westminster abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. An edition of his works, with a historical essay on his life and writings, was published in 1752–'3 (4 vols. 8vo., London).

DRAYTON, WILLIAM, LL.D., an American judge, born in the province of South Carolina in 1733, died in June, 1790. He was educated for the bar in the Middle Temple, London, where he studied 4 years. He returned to America in 1754, and was appointed chief justice in the province of East Florida in 1768. During the war of the revolution he was suspended from his office and reinstated in it, and went with his family for a time to England. After the peace he became successively judge of the admiralty court of South Carolina, associate justice of the state, and a judge under the federal government.

DRAYTON, WILLIAM, an American_politician, a native of South Carolina, died in Philadelphia, May 24, 1846. Though a federalist in 1812, he held a commission in the army after the declaration of war. He was a representative in congress from South Carolina from 1825 to 1833, and in 1830 was a leader of the union party in opposition to that of nullification. He resided in Philadelphia many years prior to his death, and in 1839 succeeded Nicholas Biddle as president of the U. S. bank, the affairs of which he found it impossible to retrieve.

DRAYTON, WILLIAM HENRY, an American statesman of the period of the revolution, born at Drayton hall, on Ashley river, S. C., in Sept. 1742, died in Philadelphia in Sept. 1799. He belonged to an influential family of South Carolina, and was educated in England at Westminster school, and at Baliol college, Oxford. Returning to America in 1764, he became an active writer on political affairs. In 1769 he published letters on the side of the government, which brought him into controversy with Christopher Gadsden and other patriotic leaders. In 1771, after revisiting England, he was appointed privy councillor for the province of South Carolina; but as the revolutionary crisis approached he espoused the popular cause, and protested against the proceedings of his colleagues. In 1774 he was appointed judge of the province, and when the continental congress was about to sit he published a pamphlet under the signature of "A Freeman," which substantially marked out the line of conduct pursued by the congress. Suspended from his offices under the crown, he was made a member of the popular committee of safety, and was prominent in advising the seizure of the provincial arsenals and British mails. In 1775 he was president of the provincial congress, and in 1776 was elected chief justice of South Carolina. He soon after de