year of the reign of George III.; and as late as strength of the custom-says: "In the duke of 1774 it was defended by some of the greatest Wellington's case, no such imputation could men of England. In the chivalrous times there have been hazarded, and his forbearance under were numerous personal combats in England, but insult would have been esteemed by his country they hardly come under the head of duelling; as a magnanimous disregard of vexatious annoyand duels may properly be said to have com- ance, and would have been appreciated as a menced in that kingdom about the same time proof both that his temper was under the serene that they did in France, so wide-spread was the control of reason, and that he disdained to avail effect of the evil example of Francis I. and Charles himself of this wretched means of exhaling his V. In the reign of James I. there were many passion, or satisfying his revenge. The nation duels between British subjects, one of the most felt humiliated when they learned that their noted of which was that fought between Lord great hero had submitted to the folly of a duel." Bruce and Sackville, afterward earl of Dorset, Wellington might have pleaded the example of in which the former was killed. The cavaliers Marlborough, who sought a duel with Lord were a class of men with whom the point of Paulett, in 1712, which the latter took care to honor was likely to be in as high favor as it was prevent. In 1835 Mr. B. Disraeli challenged Mr. with Lord Herbert of Cherbury, whose fantastic Morgan O'Connell. Among the most conspicuous notions had been increased by his residence in duels in England of late years was that fought beFrance, and whose sensibility on the subject of tween the earl of Cardigan and Capt. Tuckett in ladies' " topknots" is among the ludicrous mor- 1840.-Ireland is that part of the British empire al features of the duello. Scott has, in "Wood- in which duelling has always been most in vogue. stock" and in "Peveril of the Peak," exhibited In the latter part of the last century there was their ideas on the subject. One of the sermons scarcely an Irishman of note who had not been delivered by Chillingworth before Charles I. "out," and many of them had fought often. contains a warm expostulation against duelling. Grattan, Curran, Lord Clare, Flood, Burrowes, Cromwell was a foe to duelling. After the res- Barrington, Toler, and many others, men of high toration it became still more common, from positions, were among the Irish duellists of those the spread of French ideas. Some of the Eng- times. In 1815 Daniel O'Connell fought with and lish duels of that time were of a character in killed Mr. D'Esterre, a member of the Dublin perfect keeping with its loose morality. The corporation, which the former had stigmatized as duke of Buckingham killed Lord Shrewsbury; a "beggarly" body; and the death of his antagLady Shrewsbury, on whose account the duel onist is said to have caused Mr. O'Connell great was fought, attending the duke as a page, and grief. He afterward became involved in a disthen passing the night with her lover. In pute with Mr. (subsequently Sir Robert) Peel, Anne's reign, the duel between the duke of that would have led to a duel if he had not been Hamilton and Lord Mohun, in which both fell, arrested. Mr. Peel wished to fight the gentlecaused much feeling, from its political character, man who was to have been Mr. O'Connell's secand the atrocities that marked it. Duels be- ond.-In Scotland duels have not been so comcame more numerous as society became more mon as in Ireland, yet the Scotch have always orderly, and many of the most distinguished evinced something more than readiness to go to Englishmen took part in them. William Pul- "the field of honor." In 1822 Mr. James Stuart, teney, leader of the opposition, fought Lord well known by his work on the United States, Hervey. Wilkes was engaged in 2 duels. The killed Sir Alexander Boswell, son of Johnson's Byron and Chaworth duel happened in 1765. biographer, in a duel, which grew out of gross Throughout the reign of George III. duels were newspaper attacks on the former. Mr. Stuart frequent; among those who fought in England was tried and acquitted. Mr. Francis Jeffrey, were Charles James Fox, Sheridan, Pitt, Can- who was of counsel for the defence, went alning, Castlereagh, the duke of York, the duke most the entire length of upholding duelling, of Richmond, Sir F. Burdett, and Lord Camel- and boldly assumed that the man who slew anford; the last named, a member of the Pitt other under the circumstances that caused Mr. family, was the great duellist of the time, and Stuart to slay Boswell was not guilty of murfell in a duel in 1804. In the present reign, as der in any sense. The court, while it charged well as in those of George IV. and William IV., that killing in a duel was murder, declared that there have been some noted duels; the strangest there was no evidence of malice on the part of of which was that between the duke of Wel- Mr. Stuart, and praised his conduct on the lington and Lord Winchelsea, in 1829, the duke ground; and when the acquittal was given, the challenging the earl because of the latter's hot court congratulated him on the result. These reflections on his conduct at the time he deter- incidents, and the stress which the court laid on mined upon emancipating the Roman Catholics. the licentiousness of the press, through which The duke fired at his antagonist, who fired in the Mr. Stuart had been assailed without provocation, air, and then apologized. Perhaps no duel of show how strongly even the opinion of enlightour time had less excuse, because the challeng- ened men has been pronounced in favor of dueler's character for courage was so completely ling. It is a singular fact that Boswell, when a established. Mr. Roebuck, after admitting that member of parliament, took the principal part there are circumstances under which duelling in getting two old Scotch statutes repealed that is necessary-an admission that shows the were directed against duelling, one of which made the mere fighting of a duel, though it should have no evil result, punishable with death. -Duelling has been known in the United States from the very beginning of their settlement, the first duel taking place in 1621, at Plymouth, between two serving men. Mr. Sabine thinks it possible that in the ludicrous punishment inflicted on these chivalrous combatants we can find the cause of the difference in opinion on duelling that exists between the North and the South. They were sentenced to be tied neck and heels together for 24 hours, but a portion of the punishment was remitted. Castle island, in Boston harbor, is said to have been a duelling ground for Englishmen. In 1728, a young man named Woodbridge was killed in a duel on Boston common, by another young man named Phillips. They fought without seconds, in the night time, and with swords. Aided by some of his friends, Phillips got on board a man of war and escaped to France, where he died a year afterward. A great sensation was caused, and a new and severe law against duelling was enacted. There were few duels in the revolution, the most noted being those between Gen. C. Lee and Col. John Laurens, in which the former was wounded, and between Gens. Cadwallader and Conway, in 1778, in which the latter received a shot in the head from which he recovered. Button Gwinnett, one of the signers of the declaration of independence, from Georgia, was killed in a duel with Gen. McIntosh, in May, 1777. In 1785 Capt. Gunn challenged Gen. Greene twice, both being citizens of Georgia, and threatened a personal assault when the latter refused to meet him. Greene wrote to Washington, acknowledging that if he thought his honor or reputation would suffer from his refusal he would accept the challenge. He was especially concerned as to the effect of his conduct on the minds of military men, and admitted his regard for the opinion of the world. Washington approved of his course in the most decisive terms, not on moral grounds, but because a commanding officer is not amenable to private calls for the discharge of his public duty. Gen. Hamilton was killed in a duel with Col. Burr in 1804, the latter being vice-president, and the former the greatest leader of the opposition. This duel is always allowed the first place in the history of American private combats. That which stands next is the duel between Capts. Barron and Decatur, the latter being killed, and Barron severely wounded. Henry Clay and John Randolph fought in 1826, and Col. Benton, in closing his account of the fight, says: "Certainly duelling is bad, and has been put down, but not quite so bad as its substitute-revolvers, bowie knives, blackguarding, and street assassinations under the pretext of self-defence." Gen. Jackson killed M. Dickinson in a duel, and was engaged in other "affairs." Col. Benton killed a Mr. Lucas, and had other duels. In 1841 Mr. Clay was on the eve of fighting with Col. King, then a senator from Alabama, and elected vicepresident in 1852. Mr. Cilley of Maine fought with Mr. Graves of Kentucky in 1838, near Washington, and the former was killed. This duel caused nearly as much excitement as that between Hamilton and Burr. Both parties were members of congress. Duels have been numerous in California since that country became a part of the United States, and some of them have been of a very severe character. Formerly they were very common in the U. S. navy, and valuable lives were lost. It is related of Richard Somers, who perished in the Intrepid, and who is said to have been a mild man, that he fought three duels in one day. Capt. Bolton (then Finch) shot Lieut. White, on an island in Boston harbor, in 1819; but White forced the duel on him, and fell. In 1830 President Jackson caused the names of 4 officers to be struck from the navy roll because they had been engaged in a duel. These encounters have not been so common in the navy of late years as formerly. The army has furnished duellists, some of them of the highest rank in the service. In the northern states, the force of opinion is strong against duelling; yet, at the beginning of the century, duelling was there common, and several duels were fought in New England, while the "code of honor" was in full force in New York and New Jersey. Five shots were exchanged between De Witt Clinton and John Swartwout, in 1802; and a challenge passed between Mr. Clinton and Gen. Dayton of New Jersey, in 1803.-Duels have been not unfrequent in the different parts of British America, and in Canada and the other provinces the state of opinion resembles rather that which prevails in our southern states than the opinion of neighboring New England.-By the common law, when one of the parties to a duel is killed, the survivor and the seconds are guilty of murder; and the participation in a duel where there is no fatal result, either as principal or second, is regarded as a misdemeanor. Many of the states of the American Union have, however, modified this rule by legislative enactment, and while in some of them the killing of a man is punishable with death, in others a term of imprisonment with forfeiture of political rights is substituted. Some states require certain officers of state to make oath either that they have not within a certain time been, or will not be, concerned in a duel; and in nearly all, the duellist and his abettors are disqualified from holding office or exercising the elective franchise for life, or for a term of years, according to the issue of the duel. In the American naval and military service, an officer implicated in a duel with a brother officer, either as principal or second, is liable to be cashiered, upon conviction by a court martial; and an equally stringent provision exists in the articles of war regulating the British military service. All the legislation that has been directed against it in the United States-and it is much-has been fruitless; and the labors of individuals of the highest character have been equally barren, in more than half the Union.-See J. G. Millingen, "The History of Duelling" (2 vols. London, 1841); Lorenzo Sabine, "Notes on Duels and Duelling, with a preliminary Historical Essay" (12mo., Boston, 1855). DUER, JOHN, an American jurist, born in Albany, N. Y., Oct. 7, 1782, died on Staten island, Aug. 8, 1858. He was the son of Col. William Duer of the revolutionary army, and on his mother's side a grandson of Gen. William Alexander, the claimant of the Scottish earldom of Stirling. In his 16th year he entered the U. S. army, but after two years left the service to pursue the study of the law and of general literature. He commenced the practice of his profession in Orange co., N. Y., whence about 1820 he removed to the city of New York, where he resided until his death. In 1825 he was appointed one of the commis sioners to revise the statute law of the state, and afforded valuable assistance in the prepara tion of the first half of the work, his professional labors preventing him from giving more than occasional advice to his colleagues on the remainder. In 1849, after an honorable career at the bar, he was elected a justice of the superior court of New York city, a position which he filled until his decease. After the death of Chief Justice Oakley in May, 1857, he became the presiding justice of the court. He was a delegate to the convention which amended the state constitution in 1821, but seldom took an active part in public affairs. In 1845 he published a "Lecture on the Law of Representations in Marine Insurance," and in 1845-'6 a treatise on the "Law and Practice of Marine Insurance" (2 vols. 8vo.), which has become a standard authority in the United States. In 1848 he delivered a discourse on the life, character, and public services of Chancellor Kent, which was published, and at the time of his death was engaged in editing "Duer's Reports" of the decisions of the superior court. The 6th volume, which he did not live to complete, was revised by him while confined to his bed by a severe fracture of the thigh. Justice Duer was held in great esteem for his eminent judicial abilities, as well as for the dignity and impartiality with which he discharged the duties of his office. WILLIAM ALEXANDER, brother of the preceding, a distinguished jurist, born in Rhinebeck, Dutchess co., N, Y., Sept. 8, 1780, died in New York, May 31, 1858. After serving for a short time in 1798 as a midshipman in the navy, he commenced the study of law, was admitted to the bar in 1802, and having practised for a few years in New York, removed to New Orleans to form a professional partnership with Edward Livingston. Compelled by his health to return to the north, he opened an office in his native village, and between 1814 and 1820 was a member of the state assembly, taking a prominent part in the debates on the establishment of canals and other important questions. In 1822 he was appointed judge of the supreme court in the 3d circuit, an office which he held until the close of 1829, when he was elected president of Columbia college. He discharged VOL. VI.-42 his academical duties with great benefit to the institution until 1842, when he retired on account of ill health, and took up his residence in Morristown, N. J. He is the author of a treatise on the "Constitutional Jurisprudence of the United States," of which an enlarged edition appeared in Boston in 1856; of a memoir of his maternal grandfather, Gen. William Alexander; and of various occasional addresses before historical and literary societies. In the early part of his life he was a frequent contributor of literary articles to the periodical press of New York. DUFAU, PIERRE ARMAND, a French publicist, and director of the imperial institution for the blind at Paris, born in Bordeaux, Feb. 15, 1795. His first important literary undertaking was a continuation of Velly, Villaret's, and Garnier's general history of France. In 1824 he published a collection of the fundamental laws of the nations of Europe and America, with notes upon the history of liberty and of political institutions in modern times. About the same date appeared his work on the "Partition of European Turkey between Russia, Austria, England, and the Greeks, with the Mediation of France." From 1830 to 1840 he was one of the most active writers of the moderate liberal party. He assisted in editing the Temps and the Constitutionnel, and was for a time chief editor of the latter journal. He was a teacher in the royal institution for the blind from 1815 to 1840, and its director from 1840 until within a recent period, when he retired with the title of honorary director. He took part also in founding and supporting other charitable institutions, and fulfilled several public functions until obliged to devote himself excluively to the interests of the establishment confided to him. He continued, however, to write treatises upon political sciences, and for the amelioration of the condition of the blind, and was at the same time a contributor to some of the leading French cyclopædias. Many of his later works were crowned by the academy of sciences, and one of his earlier essays on the abolition of slavery in the French colonies (1830) by the society of Christian morality. He has also published, under the name of Armand, several light theatrical pieces. His latest works are: Statistique comparée des aveugles et des sourds-muets (4to., 1854), and De la réforme du mont de piété, à memoir presented to the academy of moral science in 1855. DUFAURE, JULES ARMAND STANISLAS, a French statesman and lawyer, born Dec. 4, 1798, was councillor of state in 1836, minister of public works in 1839, a member of the chamber of deputies from 1834 to 1848, and a champion of constitutional liberty until 1844, when he became the leader of a new moderate party midway between the opponents and supporters of the government. Although opposed to the agitation which caused the downfall of Louis Philippe, he adhered to the new republic in 1848, was elected to the constituent and legislative assemblies, and officiated as minister of the interior from June 2 to Oct. 31, 1849. He was arrested on Dec. 2, 1851, but released on the following day. He has since devoted himself exclusively to the practice of the law, and holds a distinguished position at the bar of Paris. In 1858 he was one of the council for the defence in the trial of Montalembert. DU FAY, CHARLES FRANÇOIS DE CISTERNAY, a French savant, born in Paris, Sept. 14, 1698, died July 16, 1739. In 1733 he was elected to the academy of sciences, and he was the only member of that body who has ever read papers in each of its 6 different departments that were deemed worthy of publication. He made new researches concerning phosphorus, the barometer, the refracting power of crystals, the magnet, and electricity. He introduced the theory of two kinds of electricity, the vitreous and the resinous. Among the chief services which he rendered to science were those which he performed as director of the jardin des plantes. Du Fay spent 10 years in rearranging and improving it, and made it the first establishment of the kind in Europe. At his request Buffon, who was as yet only known by his papers read to the academy, was appointed to succeed him in its superintendence. DUFF, ALEXANDER, D.D., LL.D., a Scottish missionary, born in the parish of Kirkmichael, in the co. of Perth, Scotland, in 1806. At a very early age his mind was directed to the ministry in the established church of Scotland; and with the view of preparing himself for its duties, he entered the university of St. Andrew's at the age of 15, and was graduated in due course. While a student he became intimate with Dr. Chalmers, who exercised a profound influence on his character and the direction of his career. He studied theology in St. Mary's college in the same university, and in the summer of 1829 was duly licensed to preach. During the later years of his academical studies he was the associate and bosom friend of a little circle, all of whose members became well known in the missionary field, among whom were the late John Adams and the late John Urquhart. These young men, while studying for the ministry, spent much of their leisure time in visiting the poor, distributing tracts, holding prayer meetings, and organizing and superintending Sabbath schools in destitute parts of the surrounding country. By none of the churches in Scotland had any effort yet been made to spread the gospel among the heathen. A more earnest spirit had indeed been gaining ground in the established church, and under the auspices of Dr. Inglis, aided by Chalmers and Thomson, and others of the evangelical party, a mission to India was resolved upon. Mr. Duff was selected as their first missionary, and having been ordained to the office of the ministry, he set sail toward the close of 1829. During his voyage to India he was twice shipwrecked, first on a reef while rounding the cape of Good Hope, and again on the coast of Ceylon, and narrowly escaped a third shipwreck when near the mouths of the Ganges. By the first of these mishaps he and his wife lost every thing that belonged to them. His plans of operation, his valuable library, and the fruits of his careful and laborious study, were all lost. His pocket Bible, which was picked up by a sailor among the rocks a day or two after the wreck, was alone saved. Arrived in India, a stranger among strangers, he was yet received and welcomed by many of his countrymen; but these, for the most part, were disinclined to further the special object of the Christian adventurer. They did not oppose him, but neither had they the heart to succor him. The well-known Rammohun Roy, however, who from his position and character could exercise considerable influence over the natives, entered warmly into the views of Duff, and with his assistance a school was commenced under a banian tree. Five young men assembled to receive instruction from the Scottish missionary. The shade of the banian tree was soon too narrow to protect the scholars from the fervor of the Indian sun, and it became indispensable to provide suitable accommodations for the protection and advancement alike of teachers and taught. From the very outset it was the purpose of Mr. Duff to lead his pupils through the entire range of British literature and science, and with all this the work of the missionary was never for a day lost sight of. The readings in classical literature and the scientific and philosophical lectures were all conducted with a definite end in view-the enfranchisement of the native mind, and the diffusion of the truth in philosophy and science, accompanied with the daily reading and critical and experimental exposition of the Scriptures. Mr. Duff's labors very soon began to tell, and the worth of the man, from the beginning, was apparent both to the native population and their British rulers. His honesty, perseverance, and zeal, in connection with his varied gifts and talents, soon gave a commanding influence to him and the Scottish college which he had established. In 1843 a crisis occurred in the his tory of the institution. It grew out of the disruption in the church of Scotland. On May 18, 1843, nearly 500 ministers of that church surrendered their livings into the hands of the state, rather than submit in the exercise of their official duties to the interpretation of the law relating to induction to benefices as given by the supreme judicatory, and confirmed by parliament. This they did on the ground that that interpretation was contrary to the law of Christ as laid down in the Scriptures. The aggregate value of the livings vacated was $10,000,000. When intelligence of this disruption reached Calcutta, Dr. Duff, and the brethren who had at intervals come to his help, had to consider the question whether they could retain their connection with the Scottish church, now, by the interpretation given to the law regarding benefices, thoroughly Erastianized, or whether they ought to throw in their lot with the seceding party, organized under the name of the Free Protesting church of Scot land. There was much to induce them to remain as they had been-the labors of 12 years, the complete organization of their edifices and plans, past success, the prestige of connection with a wealthy and endowed church, the sympathies of the government, and then, on the other hand, their ignorance as to the extent and ability of the Free church to aid them in the erection of new buildings, and in the carrying out of their well tried system. However, guided by a clear conviction of duty, Dr. Duff and his brethren at once and unanimously declared their adherence to the Free church, and vacated their honored and beloved institution, with all its valuable library and apparatus; and we believe they have had no cause to regret the step. On the death of Dr. Thomas Chalmers in 1846, the office of principal and professor of theology in the Free church college in Scotland was offered to him, but was refused. He returned to Europe in 1851 to recruit his broken health; but instead of finding there the necessary repose, he entered on the revival of the missionary spirit among the British people, and for that purpose visited the churches even in the remotest British isles. In 1854 he made a voyage to America, and during the months of February, March, April, and May, he visited the principal cities in the northern and western states, and passed through Canada. While he was in New York the various evangelical churches met by representation, and gave him a fraternal welcome, and the university of New York conferred on him the honorary degree of LL.D. In 1855 he returned to India, where he still remains, devoted with untiring industry to his missionary labors. DUFFY, CHARLES GAVAN, an Irish journalist and politician, born in Ulster in 1816. He embraced the profession of journalism at an early age, and for several years edited an influential newspaper at Belfast. At the same time he pursued the study of the law, and was subsequently called to the bar, but he has never practised. In 1841 he went to Dublin, where in 1842 he established the "Nation," a publication strongly in the interest of O'Connell and the advocates of repeal of the union; and in 1844 he was compromised in the proceedings instituted against O'Connell and the prominent repealers. In 1847 he joined the party of young Ireland, and in the succeeding year was tried with Smith O'Brien, Thomas Francis Meagher, and others, for sedition, but was acquitted. He then resumed the direction of the "Nation," in which he advocated various social reforms for Ireland, and between 1852 and 1856 represented New Ross in parliament. He has since emigrated to Australia, where he has been a member of the colonial legislature, and also of the ministry. He is the author of "Ballad Poetry of Ireland," and other publications. DUFOUR, GUILLAUME HENRI, a Swiss general, born in Constance in 1787. He was educated in Geneva, and after the annexation of that city to France in 1807, studied at the polytech nic school in Paris. Having entered the French army, he obtained a commission in 1809, served in the last campaigns of Napoleon, and distinguished himself during the Hundred Days. When Geneva was restored to Switzerland, he became a citizen of the republic; was continued in the rank of captain, which he had received under the empire, and in 1827 was promoted to that of colonel. In 1831 he was made chief of the staff of a corps destined to defend the neutrality of the republic. Intrusted with the management of the military school at Thun, with the survey of Switzerland, and, as quartermaster-general, with the reorganization of the federal army, he performed his duties with zeal and ability. When the organization of the Sonderbund, and the apprehended intervention of foreign powers, seemed to threaten the existence of the confederation in 1847, Dufour, at the age of 60, was chosen by the diet commander-in-chief of the federal forces, and not only rapidly suppressed the civil war, but also raised the reputation of his country in the eyes of Europe. His moderation on that occasion equalled his military ability. Being a conservative in politics, the events of 1848 lost him some part of his popularity; but he has since rendered important services to his country as a negotiator with foreign powers, especially in the question of the relations of Ticino and Neufchâtel with Austria and Prussia. Shortly before the termination of the Neufchâtel affair, he was again appointed commander-in-chief of the federal army in consequence of the warlike preparations of Prussia. He is the author of several works in French, the most important of which are: De la fortification permanente (1824; 2d edition, 1850); Geometrie perspective, &c. (1827); Mémoires sur l'artillerie des ancients et sur celle du moyen âge (1840); Manuel de tactique (1842). DUFRENOY, PIERRE ARMAND, a French geologist and mineralogist, born in Sévran, Seineet-Oise, in 1792, died in Paris, March 20, 1857. His mother (born in 1765, died in 1825) was a poetess of some distinction. He entered the polytechnic school in 1811, and the school of mines in 1813. His first essay appeared in 1819, and was followed by a great variety of papers on mineralogy and geology, which gained for him a high reputation in the scientific world. His explorations in southern France and in the Pyréneés led him to develop the theory of metamorphism, according to which the production of many of the newer rocks is explained by the action of heat upon those of older date. He explored the vicinity of Naples, and in his work on the subject (Des terrains volcaniques des environs de Naples) he maintains that Herculaneum and Pompeii were destroyed by a landslide from Vesuvius, and not by lava ejected from the crater. In concert with Elie de Beaumont he explored between 1823 and 1836 various parts of France, England, and northern Spain, and the remarkable geological map of France which appeared in 1841 was the result of their labors. He was intrusted with a mission to England for the |