grace, and was taken into the family of the countess Humiecka, with whom he frequented the Prussian court. He excelled in dancing and in playing on the guitar, and so delighted the Parisian ladies during the year of his residence in that capital that he was once invited to an entertainment in his honor, at which the plate, knives, forks, and spoons were all of dimensions proportioned to his size. At the age of 40 he married, became a father, and, after giving concerts in the principal cities of Germany, visited England, where he was introduced to the royal family, and paid a visit to a giant 8 feet 4 inches high. In London he wrote his memoirs (8vo., 1788), the undertaking being patronized by the prince of Wales and many of the nobility, and he afterward lived in elegant retirement in Durham. He possessed superior intelligence, and was said to exhibit most painful emotions when he perceived himself regarded only as a puppet and a toy. In contrast with him was the favorite dwarf of the ex-king Stanislas of Poland, commonly called Bébé (1741-'64). He was a native of Lorraine, and at 5 years of age was 22 inches high; at 15, 29 inches; and at his death, 33 inches. His diminutive figure was well formed and justly proportioned, till after the age of puberty his spine curved, and he became decrepit. He was never either mentally or physically active. He was once visited by the count Borowlaski, and having noticed the superiority of the latter in manners and intelligence, watched for an opportunity and attempted to throw his visitor into the fire. There was a struggle between the rivals, which was terminated by the interference of the household. The Dutch dwarf, Wybrand Lolkes, born in 1730, possessed mechanical tastes and skill, had success as a watchmaker, and when 60 years of age was 27 inches high, and weighed 56 lbs. Mme. Teresia, called the Corsican fairy, from the place of her birth (1743), was remarkable for physical symmetry and beauty, and mental vivacity. She spoke several languages, was charming in conversation, and when exhibited in London in 1773 was 34 inches high, and weighed 26 lbs. Jeffery Hudson (1619-'82) was the favorite dwarf of Charles I. of England. He was a native of Oakham, and about the age of 7 years, when 18 inches high, was taken into the service of the duke of Buckingham. From the age of 7 to 30 he grew no taller, but afterward shot up to 3 feet 9 inches. He was served up in a pie at a royal entertainment, from which he suddenly sprang forth in full armor. Sir William Davenant wrote a poem called "Jeffreidos" on a battle between him and a turkey cock, when a woman rescued him from his furious antagonist. The courtiers teased him about the story till he challenged a young gentleman, Mr. Crofts, who had affronted him. That gentleman appeared at the rendezvous armed only with a squirt, which so enraged the dwarf that a real duel ensued. The weapons were pistols, and both parties were on horseback to put them more on a level. At the first fire Jeffery shot

his antagonist dead. He was afterward taken prisoner by a Turkish rover, and was for a time a slave in Barbary. At the beginning of the civil war he was made captain in the royal army, but he closed his life in prison, into which he had been cast shortly before his death on suspicion of being privy to the popish plot. Charles I. of England honored with his presence the marriage of two dwarfs, Richard Gibson and Anne Shepherd, each of whom measured 3 feet 10 inches. Waller wrote a poem on the occasion, and Sir Peter Lely painted the couple at full length. Gibson rose to celebrity as a painter. In 1710 Peter, czar of Russia, celebrated a marriage of dwarfs with great parade. All the dwarf men and women within 200 miles were ordered to repair to the capital. He supplied carriages for them, and so managed that one horse should be seen galloping into the city with 12 or more of them. The whole company of dwarfs amounted to 70, and all the furniture and other preparations for them were on a miniature scale. Gen. Tom Thumb (Charles S. Stratton), the celebrated American dwarf, was born in Bridgeport, Conn., in 1837, and at the age of 5 years was not 2 feet in height and weighed less than 16 pounds; and he had grown but very little for 3 or 4 years. He had fine talents, and was remarkable for agility and symmetry, while his lively sense of the ludicrous gave him excellent success in performances suited to his character. In 1842 he was exhibited in New York by P. T. Barnum, his age being announced as 11 years. He visited England in 1844, was several times exhibited to the queen and court at Buckingham palace, gave levees, and was invited to parties of the nobility. In Paris he gained applause as an actor. He returned to the United States in 1847, and was publicly exhibited in the principal cities of the United States and in Havana. During the middle ages dwarfs shared with fools the favor of courts and of the nobility, and a salary for the king's dwarf was not abolished in France till the reign of Louis XIV. In character they have usually manifested the faults of spoiled children, being petulant, choleric, envious, jealous, and inconstant. It was asserted by Lavater that no person above or below the ordinary standard of mankind had ever attained eminence for extraordinary talent.-In Scandinavian mythology dwarfs (Dvergar) are inhabitants of the interior of the earth, and especially of large isolated rocks. They were imagined to be dark in aspect like the caverns in which they dwelt, and were often styled "dark elves." A dwarf was set by the gods at the corner of each of the 4 quarters of the earth to bear up the sky; and they were named East, West, North, and South. All the dwarfs were esteemed great artists in working metals, and weapons of marvellous properties were said to be produced from their subterranean workshops. Like the Jotuns, they could not endure the sunlight, and if its rays touched them they were turned into stone. If a man met a dwarf away from his rock. and

could throw steel between him and it, it was believed that thereby his habitation was closed up, and that any thing in his power could be extorted from him. In the old Norse, echo is called the "dwarf language," probably because it was thought to be produced by the dwarfs within mountains imitating the sounds which they heard without.

DWIGHT, EDMUND, an American merchant, born in Springfield, Mass., Nov. 28, 1780, died in Boston, April 1, 1849. He was the 3d son of Jonathan Dwight (born in Halifax, N. S., June, 1743), who removed to Springfield in his early youth, and from humble beginnings became one of the most successful merchants in New England. He was graduated at Yale college in 1799, and entered the office of Fisher Ames at Dedham, as a student of law. After completing his studies, he made the tour of Europe, and returned to Massachusetts in 1804, and opened a law office in Boston. But in 1807 he accepted an offer from his elder brother, James Scutt Dwight, to become a partner in an extensive mercantile business in Springfield, and for many years he continued that connection. In April, 1809, he married a daughter of Samuel Eliot of Boston, and in 1815 removed with his family to that city, where he established the mercantile house of William H. and J. W. Dwight. Mr. William H. Dwight was lost by shipwreck on the coast of Ireland, in 1822, and when Mr. J. W. Dwight retired from business the house was continued until 1853, under the name of James K. Mills and co. It may be said that, with perhaps one or two exceptions, this house has laid the foundation of more successful manufacturing enterprises than any other in New England. In 1822 the manufacturing village of Chicopee Falls was commenced by it, and in the course of 7 years 4 large cotton mills were put in motion, beside manufactories of other fabrics. In 1831 measures were taken to develop the water power at Cabotville (since Chicopee), and in a few years 7 large cotton mills were erected and set in successful operation there, beside manufactories of machinery, tools, hardware, brass cannons, bells, &c. In 1847 measures were taken to form an immense water power on the Connecticut river in the northerly part of West Springfield, opposite South Hadley, and a village was laid out called Holyoke. Notwithstanding many discouraging circumstances, this has acquired a very respectable standing among the manufacturing towns in New England. Another enterprise of a more public character, in which Mr. Dwight took an early and active part, was the construction of the Western railroad from Worcester to Albany, of which he was a director for many years, and one year president. But the great feature of his life was his eminent services to the cause of popular education. Mr. Dwight was the first to propose the establishment of normal schools in Massachusetts, but the extent of his liberality in the contributions of pecuniary means for that object was not allowed to be publicly known until his

decease. In 1838 he pledged $10,000 for the purpose of establishing a system of normal schools, provided the state would appropriate a like sum for the purpose. The proposition was promptly accepted by the legislature. It sppeared after his death that Mr. Dwight had relieved several deserving young men who were struggling to meet the expenses of an education, without allowing the receivers of his bounty to know the hand that had helped them. During most of his business life he represented the towns in which he resided in the legislature. He was a member from Boston for several years.

DWIGHT, THEODORE, an American author and journalist, born in Northampton, Mass., in 1765, died in New York, June 11, 1846. He was a brother of Timothy Dwight, and a grandson, on the mother's side, of Jonathan Edwards, and studied law with his uncle, Judge Pierpont Edwards, of Hartford, Conn. He became an eminent member of his profession, and a leading speaker and writer of the federal party. As a senator in the Connecticut legislature, and subsequently a representative in congress from that state in 1806-7, he showed an aptitude for the discussion of public affairs which induced the prominent federalists of Connecticut to secure his services as editor of the "Hartford Mirror," the leading organ of the party in the state. During the session of the Hartford convention in 1814 he acted as its secretary, and in 1833 published a "History of the Hartford Convention," written from a strong federal point of view. Between 1815 and 1817 he edited the "Albany Daily Advertiser," and in the latter year removed to New York, where he established the "New York Daily Advertiser," of which he remained the editor until 1836, when he retired from professional life to reside in Hartford. Three years before his death he returned to New York. Mr. Dwight was the author of some occasional orations and of several educational works.

DWIGHT, TIMOTHY, an American divine, president of Yale college, born in Northampton, Mass., May 14, 1752, died in New Haven, Conn., Jan. 11, 1817. From his earliest years, under the training of his mother, he gave indications of a thirst for knowledge, and great facility of learning. He is said to have been able at the age of 4 to read the Bible correctly and fluently. When 6 years old he was sent to the grammar school, and in 1765 he entered Yale college, where, for the first 2 years, he scarcely fulfilled the promise of his earlier days; but from that time to the end of his college course, he made rapid progress in his regular studies and in other branches, especially in poetry and music. He was graduated in 1769, and soon took charge of a grammar school in New Haven, where he remained for 2 years. In 1771 he was chosen tutor in Yale college, and continued in that office for 6 years. So intense and unintermitted were his studies at this time that his health was for a season seriously impaired, and his eyes so weakened that they never regained their strength. For a

time he seems to have contemplated the study of law, in which he afterward temporarily engaged, though his ultimate determination was for theology. When, on account of the revolutionary troubles, the students of the college were dispersed, in 1777, he went with his class to Wethersfield, where he remained till autumn, and in the mean time was licensed to preach by an association in Hampshire co., Mass. Soon after this he was appointed chaplain to a brigade of the division under Gen. Putnam, and joined the army at West Point, remaining with them over a year, and discharging the duties of his office with scrupulous fidelity. Not only did he labor for the spiritual interests of the soldiery, but, by delivering patriotic discourses and composing patriotic songs, gave new vigor to the spirit of liberty. By the death of his father in 1778 the support of his mother with her 12 children devolved on him, the oldest of her sons; and resigning his chaplaincy, he removed with his own family to Northampton. Here his labors for a series of years would seem almost incredible. He worked with his own hands upon the farm during the week, supplied some neighboring church on the Sabbath, established and sustained a school for both sexes, which acquired high celebrity, represented the town in county conventions, and for 2 years in the state legislature, and would have been chosen to the continental congress, but that he declined the intended honor, in order to devote himself to the work of the ministry. In 1783 he was ordained as pastor of the Congregational church in Greenfield, Conn.; but as his salary was entirely insufficient for his support, he established an academy, which soon became extensively known, and to which he devoted 6 hours of each day. In 1787 he received the degree of D.D. from the college of New Jersey, and in 1810 that of LLD. from Harvard college. On the death of Dr. Stiles he was chosen his successor in the presidency of Yale college, was inaugurated to that office in Sept. 1795, and continued in it to the end of his life, not merely, however, discharging its appropriate duties, but connecting with it a vast amount of labor that belonged to other departments. He was, in reality, professor of belles-lettres, oratory, and theology, teaching a class preparing for the ministry, and preaching in the college chapel twice every Sunday; in the discharge of which latter duty he prepared and delivered his wellknown "System of Theology," with which his reputation as a writer and preacher is chiefly identified. In 1816 his health began to give way under his labors, and though he attended to his classes and heard recitations almost to the last, he gradually declined till the hour of his death. Dr. Dwight was a man of commanding presence, of dignified but affable manners, of striking conversational powers, of superior intellectual faculties, untiring in his industry and research, of great system and wonderful memory; as a teacher, remarkable for his skill and success; as a writer always interesting

and sensible; and as a preacher, sound, strong, impressive, and at times highly eloquent. So entirely were his mental resources under his command, that he often dictated to 2 or even 3 amanuenses at the same time, on as many distinct subjects; and so great was his influence over young men, and his success in training large numbers of them for eminence and usefulness, that a distinguished civilian has said of him: "I have often expressed the opinion, which length of time has continually strengthened, that no man except the 'father of his country has conferred greater benefits on our nation than President Dwight." The literary labors of Dr. Dwight were very great, and his publications numerous, consisting of dissertations, poems, and occasional sermons, issued during his life, and since his death; his "Theology Explained and Defended," with a memoir (5 vols., 1818); "Travels in New England and New York" (4 vols., 1822); "Sermons on Miscellaneous Subjects" (2 vols., 1828).—SERENO EDWARDS, an American clergyman, son of the preceding, born in Greenfield, Conn., May 18, 1786, died in Philadelphia, Nov. 30, 1850. When between 9 and 10 years of age, he was removed to New Haven, his father having then become president of Yale college. Entering that institution in 1799, he was graduated in 1803; was tutor in Yale college from 1806 to 1810, during which time he studied law in New Haven, and was admitted to the bar in the latter year. In 1815, however, he experienced, as he believed, a radical change of character, and in October of the year following was licensed as a preacher of the gospel by the west association of New Haven co. Soon afterward he was chosen chaplain of the U. S. senate for the session of 1816-'17, and in September of the latter year was ordained pastor of the Park street church, Boston. Here he labored with great zeal and success for about 10 years, visiting Europe, in 1824-25, to recruit his prostrated health; but not fully gaining this end, he resigned his charge in 1826. Returning to New Haven, he now occupied himself in writing the life and editing the works of the elder President Edwards, which were published in 1829. In 1828, in connection with his brother Henry, he commenced in New Haven a large school for boys, on the plan of the German gymnasiums, which was continued for 3 years. In March, 1833, he was chosen president of Hamilton college, N. Y., in September of the same year received the degree of D.D. from Yale college, and in Sept. 1835, on account of pecuniary and other discouragements, resigned his presidency. In 1838 he was occupied for some months in an agency for the Pennsylvania colonization society, and in the same year removed to New York, where he lived for the remainder of his days. distressing malady, from which he had long suffered, gained complete mastery over him, disabling him for active service, and leading him to court retirement, so that little was known of him by the public, till, visiting Philadelphia in

Here a

1850, for medical aid, he was seized with the illness that terminated his life. He published at various times several sermons and addresses, the "Life of Brainerd" (1822), a volume on the "Atonement" (1826), the "Life of Edwards (1830), and the "Hebrew Wife" (1836). A yolume of his "Select Discourses" was published in 1851, together with an interesting memoir by his brother, the Rev. Dr. W. T. Dwight. DWINA, or DVINA, NORTHERN, a river of Russia in Europe, formed in the government of Vologda by the junction of the Sookhona and Vitchegda, flows N. N. W. into the government of Archangel, where it receives several tributaries, and after a course of more than 400 miles falls through several mouths, forming a number of islands, into the White sea, about 40 miles below the city of Archangel. It is navigable for its whole length, and is the largest stream in northern Europe, traversing as it does a marshy country, and increased by numerous affluents. It forms a part of a system of canals completed in 1807, by which a water communication is established between the White, Baltic, Black, and Caspian seas. (For SOUTHERN DWINA, see Düna.)

DYAKS. See BORNEO.

DYCE, ALEXANDER, a Scottish author, born in Edinburgh, June 30, 1797. He completed his education at Exeter college, Oxford, subsequently took orders, and in 1827 settled in London, where he has since lived. He has edited, with notes and biographies, editions of the works of Peele, Greene, Webster, Middleton, Beaumont and Fletcher, Marlow, and Shirley. In 1856 he edited "Recollections of the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers ;" and in 1858 he completed an edition of Shakespeare in 6 vols., the text of which has been highly commended. He has also contributed biographies for Pickering's "Aldine Poets." Among his miscellaneous publications are: "Select Translations from Quintus Smyrnæus;" editions of Collins's and Skelton's poems; Specimens of British Poetesses;" Kemp's "Nine Days' Wonder," and some old plays. To Shakespearean literature he has contributed "Remarks on Collier's and Knight's Editions of Shakespeare," and "A few Notes on Shakespeare"-a review of the recent emendations proposed by Mr. Collier.-WILLIAM, a British artist, born in Scotland at the beginning of this century. He studied painting at the academy of Edinburgh, but attracted little notice until the production of his fresco studies in the exhibition at Westminster hall in 1844. The admirable manner in which these were executed procured him commissions to make designs for the new houses of parliament. His "Baptism of Ethelbert," on one of the mural compartments of the new house of lords, is regarded as one of his best works. He was made a royal academician in 1848. Among his pictures exhibited in London in 1851 was "Lear in the Storm," and in Paris in 1855, "Meeting of Jacob and Rachel," and "King Joash shooting the Arrow of Deliv

erance,"

DYEING. Among the earliest records of the human race we find frequent intimations of an appreciation of the brilliant hues such as are displayed by nature in the plumage of birds, in flowers, crystals, and shells, and in the morning and evening sky; and the instinct implanted in man of imitating the works of his Creator is seen in the desire to appropriate these rich colors to the adornment of his own apparel. The gift of the coat of many colors was early regarded as the highest mark of affection. To the fine linen (which was probably the same as our cotton) were transferred the brilliant blue, scarlet, and purple hues extracted from vegetable or animal substances, the last named color reserved exclusively for the vestments of kings and high priests. The skins of the ram and the badger made use of for the tabernacle were dyed red, and in the time of Moses the art of coloring woollen purple was already known. The Tyrians early attained a high perfection in the art, and their king sent to Solomon a man skilful to work "in purple and blue, and in fine linen and in crimson." Along the coast of Phoenicia they found the two kinds of shellfish called by Pliny the buccinum and purpura, and from each animal they extracted a single drop of the precious juice which caused their name to be ever associated with the rich purple dye. In such estimation was this held in the time of the Roman emperors, that a pound weight of the cloth which had been twice dipped in it was sold, as Pliny states, for a sum worth about $150. But its use being restricted to the emperors, the art of preparing it was at last lost. It was revived in the 17th and 18th centuries in England and France, but better colors and cheaper processes were then in use. The discoverers and early conquerors of the countries of North and South America were astonished by the skill exhibited by the ancient Peruvians and Mexicans in the application of the numerous beautiful dyes they extracted from the woods of their forests. According to Pliny, the methods of dyeing black, blue, yellow, and green were brought into Greece on the return of the expedition of Alexander the Great from India, where it appears that the art of coloring cotton cloths with rich and permanent dyes had long been known and practised. The Venetians and Genoese in the height of their prosperity, in the time of the crusades, transferred the art to Italy; and Florence in the early part of the 14th century, it is said, contained not less than 200 dyeing establishments. The important dye stuff archil was discovered about the year 1300 by a merchant of Florence. In 1429 a work upon dyeing was published in Venice, of which subsequent editions were issued as late as the year 1548, containing full details of the processes employed. From this work it would appear that the use of indigo was unknown in Europe up to 1548, though in India it was probably an important article in dyeing at the remotest periods. It was afterward in troduced from America together with cochineal,

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logwood, annotto, quercitron, Brazil wood, &c. But its use in England and Saxony, as of logwood also, met with the most determined opposition. The cultivators of the woad then in use for dyeing blue caused decrees to be issued against indigo as a most dangerous product. By the German diet in 1577 it was declared to be a pernicious, deceitful, eating, and corrosive dye;" and the name was given it of food for the devil. An act of parliament in the reign of Elizabeth forbade its use, and authorized the destruction of it and of logwood wherever found, and this continued in force for nearly a century. About the year 1630 it was discovered that the crimson color obtained from cochineal might be converted into a brilliant scarlet by the application of a salt of tin. The introduction of this metal as an occasional substitute for alum as a mordant is attributed to a dyer named Cornelius Drebbel. The use of pure mordants marks the great improvement of the art in modern times, as also the introduction of a great variety of new dyes obtained from mineral substances. The Flemings during the 17th century carried the skill to which they had attained in this art into Germany, France, and England. The French about the same time directed particular attention to it, and men of eminence in chemical science, as Du Fay, Hellot, Macquer, and Berthollet, were appointed by the government to investigate and perfect the processes. The method practised in the East of giving to cotton the beautiful and permanent Turkey red dye was made known in their publications, and the art was about the same time introduced into France by some Greek dyers. The business was afterward permanently established at Glasgow by a Frenchman named Papillon. The branch of dyeing called calico printing, by which different colors are produced on the same piece of cloth by dipping it into a dye of one color, was known at a very early period, and the process is lucidly described in a few words by Pliny, as it was practised in Egypt in the first century. (See CALICO.)-The object to be attained by dyeing is the fixing of certain colors permanently and so as to present a uniform shade in the fibres of textile materials and other substances. The subjects operated upon are various in their characters, some being of animal origin, as silks and woollens, and others being composed of vegetable matters alone, as cottons, linens, &c. These two classes differ in the facility with which they imbibe the coloring matters, the animal tissue taking much more brilliant shades than the vegetable. The colors may be applied to each of these in the raw fibre, in the spun yarn, or in the woven fabric. Hence it is apparent that there must be much diversity in the processes. But when it is further considered that the coloring matters are themselves of the most diverse composition, drawn from the vegetable, animal, and mineral kingdoms, and that different substances are brought together to produce by their reactions effects dependent on

the intricate changes which take place among the elements of organic bodies, the art is readily understood to be exceedingly complicated in its nature, and to some extent so empirical in its processes, that its exposition must involve a vast amount of details. In an article like the present only a general idea of the principles of the art and of the materials employed can be given.-The colors obtained from vegetable matters are most numerous; they are extracted generally by watery infusion, though some require for their solution ether, alcohol, or the fixed oils. The most common colors are yellow, brown, and red; the only blue vegetable dyes are litmus and indigo; nut galls, sumach, and the cashew nut afford a black dye; and by the mixing of these, or their treatment with other substances, numerous shades or even different colors are obtained. The animal kingdom affords the beautiful scarlet and crimson dyes, which are extracted from the bodies of the cochineal and kermes insects. Hoofs and horns and other refuse animal matters yield the cyanogen which enters into the composition of Prussian blue. From the mineral kingdom is derived a great variety of brilliant colors, produced from the salts of the different metals. The same metal in its various combinations gives many colors, as is seen in the crystals of its natural salts. Thus iron in the form of a sulphate furnishes the ancient nankeen or iron buff, as a nitrate it affords various shades of blue, and in other combinations it is made to yield a black, slate color, &c. The chrome and lead salts are particularly interesting for the variety and brilliancy of their colors. The former are remarkable for their permanency also, and the extent of their possible applications is by no means yet fully appreciated. The mordants also, which are used to prepare the fibre for the reception and fixing of the dye, come almost wholly from the mineral kingdom. They are soluble combinations of alumina, of protoxide of lead, of oxide of iron, or of oxide of tin or of copper, with some acid, commonly acetic acid. Materials to be dyed seldom have such an affinity for the coloring matters that they will receive these without previous preparation. Some few colors, however, which are technically called substantive, are applied directly to the stuffs, and become fixed without the intervention of any other matter. But mordants are commonly required. They have the property of fixing themselves to the fibre, and of uniting chemically with the dye afterward applied, thus binding them fast together. The name is given them from the old opinion that their action was mechanical, and that they bit into (Lat. mordeo) and opened the pores of the fibre for the reception of the coloring matters. Some of them serve, at the same time that they fix the color, to modify its shade, and give to it its highest tone. For these the name alterants has been proposed by Berthollet, to distinguish them from the simple mordants. Oxide of iron often has this effect of changing the ordinary colors of a dye. Thus a