COUGH

COUGH, a violent expiratory movement, excited by some stimulus in the respiratory organs, in which the air is forcibly expelled, carrying with it the mucus or other products accumulated in the air passages. Any irritation from acrid vapors, liquid or solid foreign bodies, too abundant or morbid secretions, or even the action of cold air on the irritated mucous membrane, may produce a cough; the impression is conveyed to the respiratory nervous centre, the medulla oblongata, by the excitor fibres of the par vagum, and the motor impulse is transmitted to the abdominal and other muscles concerned in respiration. Coughing occurs when the source of irritation is in or below the posterior fauces; and sneezing when the irritating cause acts on the nasal mucous membrane. The act of coughing, as defined by physiologists, consists in a long inspiration which fills the lungs; in the closure of the glottis, when the expiratory effort commences; and in the bursting open of the closed glottis by the sudden blast of air forced up from the air passages. The cause of cough may be in the respiratory system, or it may be symptomatic of disease in the digestive and other organs. The cough in laryngitis, croup, and folliculitis arises from irritation in the throat and larynx; in bronchitis, pneumonia, pleurisy, and phthisis, the cause is in the thoracic cavity. Cough may be dry, as in the first stage of pleurisy; or humid, as in certain stages of pneumonia and in advanced consumption; this act may be single, and with distant intervals, or paroxysmal and long continued, as in whooping cough, phthisis, and bronchial catarrh; it may be accompanied by a ringing metallic sound, as in croup and whooping cough, by a hollow resonance or gurgling, as in phthisis with cavities, and by hoarseness, as in laryngeal disease. The character of the cough is characteristic of certain diseases; that of whooping cough and of croup is highly diagnostic; in pleurisy it is dry and hard; in pneumonia, generally humid, with viscid rusty sputa; in consumption it varies with the stage of the affection; but in all these, taken in connection with other symptoms, the cough is a valuable diagnostic sign. Many râles, characteristic of morbid changes, are only or best recognized in the increased respiration after coughing. Cough is frequently accompanied by pain, as in acute

COULOMB

pleurisy, pneumonia, and bronchitis; at other times painless, but exhausting, as in the paroxysms of spasmodic coughs. Cough, symptomatic of other than pulmonary disease, is not accompanied by any characteristic phenomena discoverable by auscultation and percussion. The gravity of cough as a symptom depends on the disease in which it occurs; spasmodic coughs generally are not dangerous, except from the liability to rupture of vessels, or other simply mechanical consequences. For the relief of cough the prescriptions are almost innumerable, consisting of compounds of narcotics, antispasmodics, demulcents, expectorants, and alteratives, according to the character of the symptom, the stage of the disease, and the fancy of the physician.

COULOMB, CHARLES AUGUSTE DE, a French philosopher, born at Angoulême, June 14, 1736, died in Paris, Aug. 23, 1806. In early life he was sent to the West Indies as an engineer, and remained there employed in the construction of military works 3 years. In 1773 he presented to the academy a memoir on cohesion, and in 1777 won a prize for improvements in the mariner's compass, and in 1781 another for a theory of machines. As a commissary of the government he won great praise from the inhabitants of Brittany for his defence of their interests against the schemes of certain projectors of canals, and was publicly honored with gifts from them. Leaving Paris at the time of the revolution, he devoted himself to the education of his children and the study of electricity. His published memoirs are upon the statical questions of architecture; the mariner's compass; modes of working under water; simple machines and the stiffness of ropes; windmills; the force of torsion; a stationary compass, in which the needle is hung by floss silk; electricity and magnetism, to which he devoted 9 memoirs; the friction of pivots; the circulation of sap in the poplar; the work of day laborers; and the cohesion of fluids. His fame rests principally on his electrical experiments and calculations. For our knowledge of the forces of electricity we are perhaps as much indebted to him as to any one. In private character he was as estimable as in science he was profound, thorough, and exact.

COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, an assembly for consultation), in ecclesiastical history, an assembly of bishops legitimately convoked, to determine questions concerning the faith, rites, and discipline of the church. Councils are either provincial, national, or general, according as they are composed of the prelates of a province, a nation, or of all Christendom; and their jurisdiction is of corresponding extent. The name is also given to the diocesan synod, called by the bishop for the direction of the spiritual affairs of his diocese. Provincial councils are called and presided over by a metropolitan bishop. Their chief design is to make local disciplinary regulations; and though they may discuss questions of faith, their decisions concerning doctrines have no force unless confirmed by the authority of the Catholic church. The general councils of Basel and Trent enjoined that provincial councils should be held once in 3 years, but in recent times the injunction is often disregarded. In France no metropolitan bishop is permitted to call a council unless by express sanction of the civil power. National councils assemble under the presidency of the primate or of a legate of the holy see; they are composed of all the bishops of a kingdom, and are called by princes for the regulation of national ecclesiastical affairs. These councils were frequent in France under the first 2 lines of French kings. More than 100 bishops were assembled by Napoleon in Paris in 1811, to consider the right claimed by him of nominating bishops and cardinals. As, however, they supported the resistance made by Pope Pius VII. to the imperial designs, they were dismissed before they had passed any decision. Among the latest national councils are that of Presburg, in Hungary, in 1822, and that of Würtzburg, in Bavaria, in 1849.-The general councils, called also œcumenical (from Gr. oikovμevn, the habitable earth), are summoned by the pope, are composed of all the bishops of Christendom, and are designed to adjudge questions of schism and heresy, belief and discipline, which affect the universal church. Though the first 8 general councils were convoked by the Christian emperors, as Constantine, Theodosius, and Justinian, it was because the church did not then extend beyond the limits of the empire, and therefore the Roman emperor had the same right to call a general council which after the division of the empire belonged to the emperor of Germany, and the kings of France, Spain, and England, to call national councils. It is moreover maintained by Roman Catholic writers that the first general councils were summoned by the emperors at the request or with the consent of the popes. Bishops and their representatives alone have a judicative right in councils, though the privilege has often been extended to abbots and the generals of monastic orders. The lower orders of the clergy and the doctors of the church may be invited, and may participate in the deliberations of the assembly, but have only a consulta tive voice. The cases in which priests and dea

cons have voted (St. Athanasius, for instance, having been but a deacon when he took the leading part in the council of Nice) are exceptional, and thought to be founded on the circumstance that they were the representatives of bishops. The pope, in person or by legates, presides over the council and directs its transactions; the emperors who presided in some early eastern councils having done so only in an executive and protective capacity. The decision is usually according to the majority of the votes cast; but in the council of Constance the 4 nations, Italy, France, Germany, and England, each voted separately. General councils do not create new dogmas, but interpret and declare what was originally contained in Scripture and tradition, and according to Roman Catholic belief are under the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, and therefore infallible, when they pronounce concerning matters of faith. Their infallibility, however, does not extend to questions of discipline, history, politics, or science, nor even to the grounds of their decision, nor to collateral observations. The disciplinary ordinances are usually termed canons (canones), and the decisions concerning doctrines, dogmas (dogmata); in the council of Trent, on the contrary, the latter were styled canons, and the former distinguished as capita or decreta.-The Roman Catholic church recognizes 19 general councils: that of Jerusalem, held by the apostles, about A. D. 50; the 1st of Nice, in Bithynia, convened in 325; the 1st of Constantinople, in 381; the 1st of Ephesus, in 431; that of Chalcedon, in 451; the 2d of Constantinople, in 553; the 3d of Constantinople, in 680; the 2d of Nice, in 787; the 4th of Constantinople, in 869; the 4 councils of Lateran, at Rome, in 1123, 1139, 1179, and 1215; the 1st and 2d of Lyons, in 1245 and 1274; that of Vienne, in Dauphiny, in 1811; that of Constance, in 1414; that of Basel, in 1431 (till its dissolution by the pope); and that of Trent, in 1545. The council of Pisa in 1409, that of Florence in 1439, and the 5th of Lateran in 1512, are also regarded by some as œcumenical. The conference of 192 prelates at Rome in 1854, which proclaimed the dogma of the immaculate conception, was not a council. The Greek church receives as authoritative the decisions of only the first 7 general councils. The Protestant churches generally admit the full authority of none of them, and esteem as cecumenical only the 6 which directly followed the apostolic council of Jerusalem. The synodical assemblies of the Protestant churches, as the councils of La Rochelle and of Dort near the period of the reformation, the general synods of the Evangelical church of Germany, and the convocations of the Anglican church at the present time, cannot in their nature be cecumenical.-The most complete collections of the acts of councils are those of Fathers Labbe and Cossart (Paris, 1671 et seq., 18 vols.), with supplements by St. Baluzius (Paris, 1683 et seq.); Hardouin (Paris, 1715, 12 vols.); Coleti (Venice, 1728 et seq., 23 vols.); Mansi (Florence, 1759-'98,

bility used in most countries of continental Eu rope, and corresponding with that of earl in Great Britain. It is derived from the Latin comes, meaning companion, which, under the republic, designated young Romans of family accompanying a proconsul or proprætor during his governorship or command, in order to acquire a practical knowledge of political and military affairs. Under the empire a number of persons belonging to the household of the court, or to the retinue of the chief of the state, received the title of comes, with some addition designating their function or office. Comites as well as jurisconsulti surrounded the emperor when sitting as judge, to assist him in the hearing of causes, which were thus judged with the same authority as in full senate. This mark of office was first converted into a title of dignity by Constantine the Great. As such it was soon conferred not only on persons of the palace, or companions of the prince, but also on most kinds of higher officers. These dignitaries, according to Eusebius, were divided into 3 classes, of which the first received the distinguishing appellation of illustrious, the second, that of most renowned, and the third, that of most perfect. The senate was composed of the first two. Among the multitude of officers who, at this period of the Roman empire, were dignified by the title of comes, and of whom some served in a civil, some in a legal, and others in a religious capacity, we find comites of the treasury, of sacred expenditures, of the sacred council, of the palace, of the chief physicians, of commerce, of grain, of the domestics, of the horses of the prince or of the stable (comes stabuli, the origin of the modern constable), of the houses, of the notaries, of the laws, of the boundaries or marks (the origin of the later margrave and marquis), of the harbor of Rome, of heritages, &c. Most of these titles were imitated, with slight modifications, in the feudal kingdoms which arose on the ruins of the Roman empire. Thus we can easily trace in some of the above mentioned titles the origin of the modern grand almoner, grand master of ceremonies, grand master of the royal household, grand equerry, &c., in which the word grand is used as a substitute for the ancient comes. Under the Franks counts appear as governors of cities or districts, next in rank to the dukes, commanding in time of war, and administering justice in time of peace. Charlemagne divided his whole empire into small districts (pagi, Ger. Gaue), governed by counts, whose duties are minutely described in the capitularies of the monarch. The Frankish counts had also their deputies or vicars (missi or vicarii, whence our viscount or vice-comes). Under the last of the Carlovingian kings of France the dignity of the counts became hereditary; they even usurped the sovereignty, and their encroachments remained unchecked even after the accession of Hugh Capet, who was himself the son of the count of Paris, and it was not until the lapse of several centuries that their territories became by degrees reunited with the crown. The German term for count,

Graf (which is variously derived from grau, gray or venerable; from ypaw, to write, whence the medieval Latin word graffare, and the French greffier; from the ancient Grman gefera, companion, and gerefa, bailiff or steward, whence the English sheriff) first appears in the Salic law in the form of grafio. With the development of the feudal system, as well as of that of imperial dignitaries in Germany, we find there counts palatine (comes palatii, palatinus, Pfalzgraf), presiding over the supreme tribunal; constables, afterward marshals (Stallgraf); district counts (Gaugraf); counts deputy (Sendgraf), control lers of the preceding; margraves (Markgraf), intrusted with the defence of the frontiers (Mark); landgraves (Landgraf), counts of large possessions; burggraves (Burggraf), commanders, and afterward owners of a fortified town (Burg), &c. With the decline of the imperial power most of these titles became hereditary, as well as the estates or territories with which they were connected, the dignity and possessions of the counts ranking next to those of the dukes in the empire. But there were also counts whose title depended solely on their office, as counts of the wood, of the salt, of the water, of mills, &c. The dignity of count is now merely a hereditary title, mostly attached to the possession of certain estates, and bestowed by the monarch, but including neither sovereignty nor jurisdiction, though connected in some states with the peerage, as was the case for instance under the late constitution of Hungary. In England, where the wife of the earl is still termed countess, the dignity of count was attached by William the Conqueror to the provinces or counties of the realm, and given in fee to his nobles. The German term has been adopted by several nations of Europe, as for instance by the Poles (hrabia), Russians (graf), and Hungarians (gróf).

COUNTERPOINT. See HARMONY.

COUNTERSCARP, in fortification, the outer slope or boundary of a ditch. The inner slope is called escarpe. The term is applied also to the whole covered way, with its parapet and glacis, as when the enemy is said to be lodged in the counterscarp.

COUNTERSIGN, the signature of a secretary or other public officer to attest that a writing has been signed by a superior. Thus the certificates recognovit, relegit, et subscripsit are common on charters granted by kings in the middle ages.-In military affairs, the countersign is a particular word given out by the highest in command, intrusted to those employed on duty in camp and garrison, and exchanged between guards and sentinels.

COUNTY (Fr. comté), in Great Britain and some of the British colonies, and in most of the United States of America, a political division nearly corresponding to a province of Prussia or a department of France. It is synonymous with shire, with which designation it is often interchanged in England, but never in Ireland. The division of England into shires or counties,

thongh popularly attributed to Alfred, was probably of earlier date, since several of them, as Kent, Sussex, and Essex are nearly identical with ancient Saxon kingdoms. There are now 52 counties in England and Wales, 33 in Scotland, and 32 in Ireland. The county is an administrative division, and its principal officers are a lord lieu tenant, who has command of the militia; a custos rotulorum, or keeper of the rolls or archives; a sheriff, a receiver-general of taxes, a coroner, justices of the peace, an under-sheriff, and a clerk of the peace. The assize court, county court, and hundred courts, are the chief judicial tribunals. There are in England 3 counties palatine, Chester, Lancaster, and Durham, the earl of each of which had all the jura regalia, or rights of sovereignty, in his shire. The first two of these have been long annexed to the crown, and Durham, previously governed by its bishop, was annexed in 1836. The United States are divided into counties, with the exception of South Carolina (divided into districts) and Louisiana (divid ed into parishes). In each county there are county officers who superintend its financial affairs, a county court of inferior jurisdiction, and stated sessions of the supreme court of the state. COUP (French), a blow, is used in various connections to denote a sudden, decisive action, as coup de main, in military language, a prompt, unexpected attack; coup d'œil, in the same, a rapid conception of the advantages and disadvantages of position and arrangement in a battle; coup de grace, a killing stroke, finishing the torments of the victim; coup de théâtre, a sudden change in the action; coup de soleil, a stroke of the sun; coup d'état, a sudden, arbitrary, and forcible measure in politics, used mostly for the violent overthrow of a constitution.

COUPON (Fr. couper, to cut), an interest certificate attached to the bottom of bonds on which the interest is payable at particular periods. There are as many of these certificates as there are payments to be made, and at each payment one of them is cut off and delivered to the payer.

COURAYER, PIERRE FRANÇOIS LE, a Roman Catholic ecclesiastic, born in Vernon, Normandy, 1681, died in England, 1776. He had taken refuge in England (1728) in consequence of a "Defence of English Ordinations," which he had published (1723) as a result of the convictions to which he was brought by a correspondence with Archbishop Wake. The correspondence took place while Courayer was canon of St. Geneviève, and professor of theology and philosophy. The university of Oxford conferred on him the title of doctor of laws, and Queen Caroline settled a pension of £200 on him for a French translation of Father Paul's "History of the Council of Trent." He also translated Sleidan's "History of the Reformation," and wrote several theological works. He entertained many religious opinions contrary to the doctrines and practices of the church of Rome, but declared himself, two years before his death, still a member of her communion.

He was buried in the cloisters of Westminster abbey.

COURCELLES, THOMAS DE, a French theologian, born in 1400, died in Paris, Oct. 23, 1469. He was educated at the university of Paris, of which institution_he became one of the brightest ornainents. In 1430 he was chosen rector of that university, and in 1431 was made canon of Amiens, Laon, and Thérouanne. He took a prominent part in the trial and condemnation of Joan of Arc, but was not present at her execution. In the process of her rehabilitation in 1456 he made no excuse for his conduct in this affair. COURIER DE MÉRÉ, PAUL LOUIS, a French scholar and publicist, born in Paris, Jan. 4, 1772, murdered near Veretz (Indre-et-Loire), April 10, 1825. Having received an excellent education, he took, while in the army of Italy, every opportunity of visiting libraries and works of art, and denounced in his private correspondence the spoliation of the latter by the French soldiery. Returning to France in 1800, he attracted the attention of Hellenists by the publication of his remarks upon Schweighäuser's edition of Athenæus. In 1806 he was again with the army, stationed in dangerous and isolated parts of Calabria, and afterward at Naples and Portici, where he occupied his leisure hours in translating Xenophon's treatise on cavalry, and on equitation. Censured for lingering in Rome and Florence instead of attending to his duties, he threw up his commission, but rejoined the army just before the battle of Wagram, after which, however, he left it entirely. While in Florence, he had discovered in the Laurentian library an unedited manuscript of Longus, "Daphnis and Chloe," which he published in Greek and French in 1810. Having, however, in copying the manuscript, accidentally blotted it with ink, he was accused of doing so purposely, and ultimately expelled from Tuscany, while the 27 remaining copies of the 52 he had printed were seized by the Tuscan government. This proceeding was probably prompted by Courier's castigation of the Florentine library authorities in a spirited letter addressed to M. Renouard, and prefixed to his Longus. On his final return to France in 1814, he married, at the age of 42, a young lady of 18, a daughter of his friend, the Hellenist Clavier. The restoration gave him opportunities of trying his strength in politics. He denounced the follies of the new administration in numerous pamphlets, which produced a strong impression upon the public mind, but involved Courier in troubles with the government, and he was arrested on several occasions. His most effective pamphlet, Pamphlet des pamphlets, appeared in 1824, and was called by his biographer, Armand Carrel, "the last note of the expiring swan," for during the spring of the following year he was found shot near his country seat. Five years later it was ascertained that he had been murdered by his gamekeeper, Frémont, who had died of apoplexy, but no clue was discovered to the motive which