decoction of madder applied to unmordanted cotton gives a fugitive and dirty red color. If the cotton be first passed through a weak solution of acetate of alumina, and then dried at a high temperature, afterward washed, next treated with a hot decoction of madder, and again washed, it will be found to have received a fine red, which is fixed, so as to resist the action of air, light, and water. But if, instead of alumina, oxide of iron is employed as the mordant, a purple color will be obtained. So in dyeing with cochineal, the aluminous mordant produces a crimson color; but if oxide of iron is used instead, the result is black. By mixing mordants different shades and colors are produced, and varying the strength of the solutions, and other similar expedients, afford opportunities for the exercise of much ingenuity in obtaining a variety of effects. A thorough familiarity with the chemical action of the salts employed upon each other is essential to skilfully conduct these complicated processes, and obtain most directly and with the greatest economy the effects desired. It is often the case that the color is produced in the cloth in the form of a precipitate by the interchange of the elements of 2 different chemical compounds taking place in the fibre of the stuff, on this being dipped first into the solution of one, and then into that of the other. The new color obtained by this chemical reaction is at the same time fixed in the fibre, as though one of the substances acted as a mordant; this may be the case when neither solution would afford any color whatever to the material to be dyed. Thus an aqueous solution of nitrate or acetate of lead or of bichromate of potash imparts no color to cloth; if applied to it, either may be washed out; but one being applied to the same stuff after it has received the other, an insoluble precipitate of chrome yellow (chromate of lead) is obtained, which attaches itself to the stuff as a fast dye. The oxygen of the air is also made to act upon colors subject to its influence, bringing them out as the material exposed to it is converted into an oxide. Solutions of salts which evolve oxygen are used to produce the same effect. Acids, too, are added to alkaline solutions to neutralize them and cause the dye they hold in solution to be liberated as they precipitate among the fibres of the cloth. In the process called mandarining an acid is made to act directly upon the fibre of the cloth, which in this case must be of animal substance, as silk or woollen. An orange dye is thus produced by the action of dilute nitric acid. An interesting account is given by Tomlinson, in the "Useful Arts and Manufactures of Great Britain," of the operations conducted in one of the great English cotton dye houses, near Bolton. In an immense apartment, the basement story of a large cotton mill, is collected the great variety of apparatus employed: cisterns of stone for bleaching and washing; dashwheels, &c., also for washing; "dye becks" and soap becks," or vessels containing the dyestuffs and the soap and water; mangles for roll

ing cloth, others with brushes for laying the fibre, squeezing rollers, and drying machines. Boilers are seen in operation heated by steam conveyed through them in pipes; water flows in every direction, the waste running out in streams of all colors, and the fresh conveyed about by numerous pipes. The water must be of the purest quality, uncontaminated by any foreign substances, whose presence would injuriously affect the delicate chemical processes. The dyestuffs are ground and mixed in another room, where they are also stored. The infusions are made in tubs or vats, some in cold water, and some by boiling. The dyestuffs are introduced in the form of a coarse powder, or they may be enclosed in bags through which the color is imparted to the liquid. The cotton cloth is first prepared by thorough cleansing in order to remove all extraneous matters that may be attached to the fibre; acid waters are sometimes used for this purpose, dissolving out the calcareous earth and oxide of iron which are frequently present. The mordant is then applied by soaking the cloth in solutions of alum, each pound of cotton requiring 4 oz, of alum; or if a black color is to be produced, the mordant is a preparation of nut galls boiled for 2 hours in water. The preparatory operations are expedited by passing the cloth in lengths of 100 yards or more over and under different rollers, one of which is set under the liquid in the vat. The fluid is thus kept uniformly mixed, and the cloth is equally saturated with it. As it comes out of the vat it is made to pass between 2 rollers, which press out the superfluous moisture, and it is then ready for another dipping. After the dyeing has been completed, the cloth must be submitted to the finishing processes. The loose portions of the coloring matters are removed by washing, and the colors are brightened and rendered more permanent by passing the cloth through solutions of cow dung in water, or of the artificial preparations of phosphates used as a substitute and called by this name, or a solution of bran is used to effect a similar purpose. These are processes adopted in calico printing particularly, as is that of fixing the colors by steaming the cloth. Chloride of lime in solution is also employed to remove the excess of coloring matters. By next passing the cloth through squeezing rollers the water is pressed out, and in the drying machine it is in a few minutes rendered nearly dry, the centrifugal force produced by the rapid revolution of a cylinder expelling the moisture, which escapes through apertures made for the purpose. The starching and subsequent drying by steam follow, and the cloth is ready for the final process of calendering. In 1850 a patent was granted in England to Mr. Jean Adolphe Carton for improvements in dyeing, which consist in the preparation of 4 mordants to be used instead of the cream of tartar, and cream of tartar and alum, now commonly employed, whereby colors will be produced at a cheaper rate and of superior brilliancy and variety. The first mordant is prepared by

and recalled to his native place to follow the profession of his father as solicitor. His taste, however, led him to poetry and the fine arts, and after a short study of painting he rambled over England as an itinerant artist. In 1727 he published his "Grongar Hill," which he had written during his excursions-a poem marked by warmth of sentiment and an elegant simplicity of description. He travelled in Italy to pursue his studies as a painter, but the best result of his observations was his poem entitled the "Ruins of Rome," which was published in 1740. On his return from Italy, having little prospect of success as an artist, he entered holy orders, and married a lady named Ensor, who, he says, was a descendant from Shakespeare. In 1758 appeared his longer poem of "The Fleece," in which he attempted to treat the subject of wool in a poetical manner, and which is at least one of the most successful of the many imitations of Virgil's "Georgics." All the poems of Dyer abound in happy and careful pictures of nature, and in appropriate and gentle moral sentiments. His eulogy is pronounced by Johnson when he says that he who has read "Grongar Hill" once will return to read it a second time.

DYER, MARY, a disciple of Anne Hutchinson, and a victim to the persecution which befell the Quakers in the early history of Massachusetts, was hanged on Boston common, June 1, 1660. The government of Massachusetts by a statute excluded Quakers from the bounds of that colony, and sentenced to death any one of that sect who should be guilty of a second visit to the peculiar land of the Puritans. The statute was little regarded, or rather was construed as an invitation instead of a menace, by the enthusiastic and devoted believers against whom it was directed. Mary Dyer had departed from their jurisdiction upon the enactment of the law, but soon after returned on purpose to offer up her life. She was arrested and sent to prison full of joy, wrote from the gaol a remonstrance in which she pronounced her persecutors disobedient and deceived, was reprieved after being led forth to execution and after the rope had been put around her neck, and was against her will conveyed out of the colony. She speedily returned, and suffered as a willing martyr.

DYMOND, JONATHAN, an English writer on ethics, born in Exeter in 1796, died May 6, 1828. The son of a linen draper, and himself engaged in the business, he composed his books amid the pressure of other occupations and without the resources of a learned education. He wrote principally in the early hours of morning, and published in 1823 an "Inquiry into the Accordance of War with the Principles of Christianity," a work which attracted much attention. His fame chiefly rests on his "Essays on the Principles of Morality," which proves him to have possessed a discriminating mind, and simple and clear views of Christian ethics.

DYNAMICS (Gr. dvvaus, force), that department of mechanics which treats abstractly of

bodies in motion, as distinguished from statics, which considers bodies at rest. (See MECHANICS.) DYNAMOMETER (Gr. dvvaus, force, and μeтpov, a measure), an instrument originally designed to ascertain the strength of men and animals, of the limbs of the body, the fingers, &c. Its application was afterward extended to the determination of the power exerted by machines, or of any portions of them, and the instrument has hence come into use as a meter of the power of engines. The principle of the earlier contrivances was to weigh the force exerted by the amount of compression or of deflection produced upon an elliptical steel spring; this in the former case being drawn together by the application of the power and of the resistance at the two opposite ends, and in the latter separated by the force and resistance being applied upon the opposite sides of the spring, on the line of the minor axis of the ellipse; an index upon a graduated arc attached to the spring showed the amount of deflection. Another contrivance was a spiral spring enclosed in a tube, the force being exerted to draw this together, precisely the same thing as the ordinary spring balance. By such means the greatest power exerted by one impulse was indicated; but as in most instances the power is not constant for any determinate time, the index must fluctuate in such a manner that the mean effort it should represent cannot be ascertained. If known, its amount multiplied by the time of continuance of the operation would give as a result the value of the whole power exerted. Instruments have been devised by MM. Poncelet, Morin, and others, which should register upon papers, made to pass by a clock-work movement under the index, curved lines from which the whole power could be directly calculated from the areas enclosed-the ordinates of the curves representing the power exerted, and the abscissas the length of time, or in some instances of the space run over. The apparatus might be fixed to a carriage, the length of the index paper in this instance bearing a certain proportion to the length of the road gone over. A great number of different forms of this instrument have been devised by eminent engineers of France, England, and the United States. One by Watt, improved by Macknaught, gives the force exerted by the piston of a steam engine against a spiral spring, a style attached to the piston inscribing a line representing its position during the unrolling of the paper which moves at an even rate against it. The principle of this is the same as that of anemometers, which are dynamometers limited in their application to measuring the force of the wind. In the Dictionnaire des arts et manufactures the subject is fully treated in the article Dynamomètre, by M. Laboulaye. The descriptions of the various forms of the apparatus are made intelligible by many illustrations. In Appleton's "Dictionary of Mechanics," also, many forms of the apparatus are figured and described; and the following simple contrivance, applicable in some instances, is proposed. A cylinder of some material hea

vier than water is suspended in this fluid by a rope passing over a pulley. As power is applied to this rope to draw the cylinder out of the water, the increasing weight of this, as more is raised into the air, will at last cause the resistance to equal the force applied, the cylinder being sufficiently large and long. By means of a scale properly arranged, the amount of the power applied may be accurately measured.

DYSART, or DESART, a parliamentary borough and seaport town of Scotland, in the county of Fife, 12 m. N. N. E. from Edinburgh, on the N. side of the firth of Forth; pop. in 1851, 8,739. The town is very old, and in former times was a place of much importance. Its trade was then considerable, but it now exports little beside coal, and has no manufactures of note except checks and ticks.

DYSENTERY, a disease characterized by frequent straining efforts at stool, attended by small and painful mucous and bloody discharges. Dysentery is more common in hot climates than in temperate ones; in summer and autumn than in winter and spring. It is subject to epidemic influences, being in some seasons frequent and fatal over an extensive region, and then almost disappearing for years. It is more common and severe in malarious districts. It sometimes breaks out and is excessively fatal in public institutions where the inmates have been subject to the combined influence of a vitiated atmosphere and an improper and innutritious diet; and under the influence of fatigue, exposure, and improper diet, it has often proved very destructive to armies. It is commonly attributed to the use of irritating and indigestible food, and to cold, particularly after the body has been debilitated by a prolonged exposure to heat. The milder cases of dysentery are attended by little or no fever; but when the disease is severe fever is always present, and may precede though it more commonly follows the focal manifestations. There is often a good deal of pain and soreness in the lower part of the abdomen or extending along the track of the colon, frequent calls to stool, attended with painful and often violent straining; the stools consist chiefly of mucus more or less tinged with blood, and sometimes mixed with membranous shreds, or they may consist of blood almost pure, or they resemble the washings of flesh; their odor is not feculent, but faint and peculiar, and sometimes horribly fetid; occasionally the neck of the bladder sympathizes with the neighboring bowel, and there is difficulty in passing urine. While mild cases of dysentery are attended with no danger, when severe the disease is always serious and often fatal; or it may become chronic, and slowly waste the powers of the constitution. When death occurs, post mortem examination reveals the existence of extensive ulceration in the large intestines. The ulcers are often large, irregular in shape, laying bare the muscular and sometimes the peritoneal coat; between them the mucous membrane is thickened, often lined

with false membrane, sometimes appearing as if struck with gangrene. When the pain and tenderness are very considerable, the treatment may be commenced by the application of leeches over the track of the inflamed bowel; if any constipation has previously existed, a dose of castor oil, to which a few drops of laudanum have been added, may be given; opiates and astringents may be afterward administered. From the fact that the rectum is the part of the intestinal canal most affected, opiates in the form of suppositories or enemata are found particularly useful. Calomel has been highly recommended in the treatment of the dysentery of tropical climates, but in temperate regions it is rarely necessary to resort to it. During the treatment the patient should be confined to his bed, and the diet should be of the mildest and most unirritating character. When dysentery passes into the chronic state, the tenesmus subsides, the stools become more copious and loose, and are found to contain pus; the complaint is apt to be tedious and intractable, and when recovery does take place the digestive organs remain for a long time feeble and irritable. A strictly regulated diet with the use of opium, combined with a small dose of sulphate of copper or nitrate of silver, are the means commonly had recourse to in its treatment.

DYSPEPSIA, INDIGESTION. Under this head are commonly grouped all those functional disorders of the stomach which are independent of organic disease, and are not symptomatic of disease of other parts of the economy. Its characteristic symptoms, as given by Cullen, "are want of appetite, nausea, vomiting, flatulence, eructations, and pain; more or fewer of these symptoms concurring, together sometimes with constipation." Many circumstances must concur to render digestion easy and perfect. The mind should be free from any harassing care or anxiety; otherwise not only the appetite is impaired, but the food which is taken is digested with difficulty. The food should be thoroughly masticated and insalivated to prepare it for the action of the gastric juice. Those who bolt their food half chewed, who have salivary fistula, or who waste their saliva by constant spitting, finally suffer from dyspepsia. The quantity of food taken must be suited to the wants of the system, and to the capabilities of the stomach. After recovery from wasting diseases, a larger quantity of food is required and will be digested than at ordinary times. It must be suited to the digestive capacity of the stomach; if the quantity be too large or the quality too rich, a sense of fulness and weight in the region of the stomach, nausea, heartburn, and eructation of acid and gaseous matters follow; with these symptoms the tongue becomes furred, there is some feverishness, and there is more or less headache; if vomiting occurs, and the ejecta contain bile, the sufferer in ordinary phrase is said to have had a bilious attack. The food must be taken at proper intervals, and these intervals are not always the same for all

persons; before a second meal is taken, the previous meal should be completely digested, and the stomach should have a period of repose. The food must not only be of a character which permits its easy digestion by the stomach and small intestines, but it must afford a residuum bulky and stimulating enough to maintain a regular action of the bowels. When constipation is induced by neglect, indolent habits, or too concentrated a diet, the stomach is apt to suffer, and dyspeptic symptoms follow. To all these causes of dyspepsia must be added the abuse of fermented and distilled liquors. When dyspepsia has been induced by any one of the above-mentioned causes, its cure is to be sought in the removal of the cause by which it was brought on; but this alone will often be found tedious or inefficient. In one class of cases a certain degree of inflammation of the gastric mucous membrane seems to be produced. The presence of food excites pain, which continues so long as the food remains in the stomach; carminatives or stimulants, so far from affording relief, aggravate the distress. In such cases the diet must be of the blandest and most un

E,

the 5th letter and 2d vowel of the Latin alphabet, and of those derived from it. It is both short and long, and in the Greek alphabet has 2 corresponding forms, Eyidov (slender E), the 5th letter, and Hra (long E), the 7th letter (but counting 8 if the stigma be included). The short and long O, Oμikρov and Queya, are analogous to them. Simonides is said to have formed the H (nra) by doubling the E (ehov), thus Ea, the epsilon having before been both short and long. The H, however, was made by the Latins an aspirate, and was employed to represent the rough breathing, and the aspirate sound in e, , and X, as Homerus, Thales, Philon, Charon. The prototypes of the aspirated Greek letters in question are the Phoenician and Hebrew He and Chet. Indicating the most fleeting sound of the human voice, a mere breathing in many cases, the letter E is the basis of the vowel system, and the most protean of all the vowels, as regards its shades of sound, its convertibility, the modes in which it is indicated in writing, and the uses that are made of it in various graphic systems. But few of its peculiarities can here be pointed out. In English it has 5 sounds, called long, short, open, obtuse, and obscure, respectively as in mete, met, there, her, and brier. The long English sound corresponds to the French and German I, while the French nasal E in em and en sounds like the English a in swan; and the sound of the French sharp E is represented in English by a, ai, ay, or ey, as in made, maid, say, and they. In Hebrew, it has 2 sounds; the open is noted by Tsere (break), or 2 horizontal dots under the con

stimulating kind, and the amount of food rigidly limited. Restricting the patient to milk, diluted with an equal part of lime water, is sometimes attended by great benefit, and farinaceous articles are preferable to meat. In another and the larger class of cases, there is neither inflammation nor irritation present, but the powers of the stomach seem enfeebled; here stimulants relieve the distress, and cause at least a temporary improvement. In such cases a meat diet agrees better than an exclusively farinaceous one, and the patient is benefited by the use of the bitter tonics, colombo, gentian, quassia, &c. Certain remedies are adapted to the relief of particular symptoms; acidity is relieved by the use of alkalies and the alkaline earths; pain, by bismuth and hydrocyanic acid; flatulence, by carminatives; and constipation, when it cannot be obviated by diet and attention, may call forth the use of some of the purgative mineral waters, or of small doses of aloes in combination with nux vomica. It is in these cases that travel, combining as it does relaxation with mental excitement and exercise, is particularly serviceable.

sonant; the close by Segol (grape), or 3 dots, and 2 Sheva (emptiness), or 2 vertical dots, the one movable (half mute), the other quiescent (mute). The long E is written AI in Meso-Gothic. In Greek the long and short E (e and 7) are both either open or close, but the latter is pronounced as I in Neo-Hellenic, Coptic, and Slavonic. In German it has 3 sounds, very short in hatte, hoffen, like the English short E in Engel, rennen, and like the English long A in geben, predigen; in Magyar 3, as in emberiség, humanity; in Italian and Spanish 2, the open and close; in French 6 viz.: open in fête, il cède, half open in nous fe tons, sharp in été, parlez, nasal in bien, half mute in je, le, Breton, and almost mute in simple, sucre, and is quite mute in la rue, j'avouerai. Both in English and French it influences preceding syllables by lengthening and changing their vowels; thus compare made, mete, pine, note, and tube, with mad, met, pin, not, and tub; and il plane, il mène, fine, and une, with le plan, il ment, fin, and un. In German it produces the metaphony of A, O, U, into Ä, Ö, U, as in Männer, men, Vögel, birds, Hüte, hats. It also lengthens vowels immediately preceding, as in Germ. See, sea, dieser, this, Eng. true, and Fr. la vie. It is very often elided, absorbing and absorbed; the elision is in many languages recorded by the sign of apostrophe; thus: John's house, wish'd, P'homme, and l'erbe. It is often a euphonic means for facilitating the utterance of words, as in establish, établir, establecer, épice, espiritu, esprit, escribir, écrire, estado, état, estrella, étoile, Estevan, and Étienne. It is prefixed for other reasons in Ekelvos, ecquis, and many other