the town, and for several weeks occasional sharp skirmishes took place between the opposing forces, Eaton's army having meanwhile been considerably augmented. On June 11 a general engagement was fought, in which several thousand men took part, and the enemy were totally routed, and driven back to the mountains. At this moment, when Eaton was preparing by a rapid march to fall upon Tripoli, reinstate Hamet on the throne, and release the American captives detained there without ransom, intelligence arrived that a peace had been concluded by Col. Tobias Lear, the American consul-general at Algiers, one of the conditions of which was that $60,000 should be paid the bey for the ransom of the Americans. Eaton soon after returned to the United States, where he received many marks of popular favor. The president spoke of him in flattering terms in his annual message, and the legislature of Massachusetts voted him a tract of 10,000 acres of land, in acknowledgment of his services. The remainder of his life was passed in Brimfield, Mass., which town he at one time represented in the state legislature. According to his testimony given on the trial of Aaron Burr, he was solicited by the latter to embark in his project of establishing a southern empire, but declined. Habits of inebriety grew upon him in his latter years, and hastened his death. Eaton was a well informed man, and from his official and private correspondence appears to have possessed a strong, nervous style, and graphic powers of description. A memoir of him was published in Brookfield, Mass., in 1813; and another by Prof. C. C. Felton, compiled from his original papers, is contained in Sparks's "American Biography."

EAU DE COLOGNE, alcohol perfumed with essential oils, named from the city of Cologne, in which its manufacture is extensively prosecuted, and from which several million bottles are annually exported. The inventor and most famous maker was Jean Marie Farina; but his name is now adopted by several of the manufacturers of Cologne, and in other countries it is attached to very different preparations, resembling the genuine only in the bottles and labels, which are perfect copies of the original. Numerous recipes are given for this preparation, some of which are stated to have come from Farina himself. Most of them are very complicated from the great number of ingredients. Purity of the volatile oils, and also of the alcohol, and freedom especially of the latter from fusel oil, are essential to the perfection of the perfume. It is also important that no one of the volatile oils should so predominate that its odor may be perceived above the rest. Distillation after mixing is recommended in some cases, and in others condemned, as the volatile oils do not distil over so readily as the spirit, and therefore a portion of their strength is lost by the process. When not distilled, the mixtures should stand for some weeks or months, that the oils may be thoroughly dissolved in the alcohol. The fol

lowing is given as the process of Farina in the Dictionnaire des arts et manufactures: balm and mint of Notre Dame, each 350 grammes; petals of roses and violets, each 120 gram.; lavender flowers, 60 gram. ; absinthium (wormwood), 30 gram.; sage and thyme, each 30 gram.; orange flowers, nutmegs, mace, cloves, and cinnamon, each 15 gram.; camphor and angelica root, each 8 gram. These ingredients are digested in 660 lbs. avoirdupois of rectified alcohol for 24 hours, adding 2 lemons and 2 oranges cut into slices. The mixture is then distilled by heat of the sand bath until 440 lbs. have passed over. To this product are then added essences of lemon, of cedrat, of balm, and of lavender, each 45 gram.; essences of neroli and of rosemary, each 15 gram.; essence of jasmine, 30 gram. ; essence of bergamot, 350 gram. The whole are thoroughly mixed and then filtered. It is also prepared without distillation, but the odor is never so fine. Lebeaud and Fontenelle (Nouveau manuel complet du distillateur et du liquoriste, Paris, 1843) recommend the following: dried rosemary, thyme, sweet marjoram, wormwood, balm, and hyssop, 1 oz. each; cloves, cinnamon, angelica root, juniper berries, anise, cummin, fennel, and caraway seeds, fresh orange peel, and oil of bergamot, 1 oz. each; cardamoms, lavender flowers, and bruised nutmegs, each 2 oz.; the whole to be digested in 10 quarts of alcohol several days, and then distilled to dryness by water bath. Or, to the same quantity of alcohol may be added 1 quart each of tincture of balm and rosemary; 2 oz. each of oil of bergamot, rosemary, citron, and cedrat, and 1 dram of oil of orange flowers. This may be improved by the further addition of 2 oz. each of essence of roses and of jasmine, and 1 dram of oil of cloves. Distillation is not essential in this case. Dr. Brande gives the following method of preparing a good imitation: alcohol, 1 pint; orange flower water, 1 pint; oils of bergamot, orange peel, and rosemary, each 1 drachm; and bruised cardamoms, 1 drachm. From this mixture 1 pint is to be distilled by water bath.

EAU DE LUCE (aqua lucia), a kind of liquid soap made by mixing a little oil of amber and mastic or balm of Gilead with ammonia. It is merely scented ammonia. It is esteemed a remedy for the bites of poisonous animals. The compound tincture of ammonia is substituted for it, made by dissolving 2 drachms of mastic in 9 fluid drachms of rectified spirit; pouring off, and adding a pint of strong ammonia, and 14 minims of oil of lavender.

EBAL AND GERIZIM, mountains in Palestine. These 2 mountains are within 200 paces of each other, and separated by a deep valley, in which stood the old city of Shechem, now Nabloos. They are much alike in size and form, being semi-circular in figure, from 700 to 800 feet in height, about half a league in length, and on the sides nearest Shechem nearly perpendicu lar. They were made memorable by the solemn ratification of God's covenant with the

Jews after they had passed over Jordan, when 6 tribes were placed on Gerizim and 6 on Ebal, the former to pronounce blessings on those who should faithfully keep the divine law, and the latter to pronounce curses on those who should violate it; whence they were known as the mount of blessing and the mount of cursing. (Deuteronomy, xxvii. and xxviii.) Accord ing to the injunction of Moses, the Jews after obtaining possession of Canaan built an altar and celebrated a feast on Ebal. This, the Samaritans contended, should have been done on Gerizim, and they afterward built a temple on the latter, the ruins of which are still visible, and regarded it as the Jews regarded their temple at Jerusalem. The remark of the Samaritan woman to Christ at Shechem (John iv. 20) is in allusion to this difference of opinion as to the proper place of worship.

EBELING, CHRISTOPH DANIEL, & German scholar, born near Hildesheim, Hanover, in 1741, died in Hamburg, June 30, 1817. He was noted for his extensive knowledge of oriental languages, of classic and foreign literature, and of history and geography. He published a history and geography of North America (7 vols., Hamburg, 1796-1816), for which he received a vote of thanks from the U. S. congress. He paid special attention to the geography of the new world, and collected about 10,000 maps and nearly 4,000 books, all relating to America. This library was purchased in 1818 by Mr. Israel Thorndike of Boston, and presented by him to Harvard college, where it now is.

EBENEZER, the name of the field in which the Israelites were defeated when the ark of God was taken (1 Sam. iv. 1), and also of a memorial stone or monument set up by Samuel to commemorate their victory over the Philistines at Mizpeh, when God interposed for their deliverance (1 Sam. vii. 5-12). The compound word signifies the stone of help, and was probably not applied to the field before the second event. The monument was erected by the prophet, saying: "Hitherto hath the Lord helped us." Hence it is often said: "Here will we set up our Ebenezer," i. e., will establish some memorial of the divine faithfulness and goodness.

EBERHARD IM BART (Eberhard with the Beard), the 1st duke of Würtemberg, born Dec. 11, 1445, died Feb. 14, 1496. His early life was signalized by great irregularities; his father, Count Louis the Elder, dying while he was young, his education was neglected, and before he was 14 he wrested the government from his uncle Ulric, who had been appointed regent during his minority. A pilgrimage to the Holy Land, however, and the influence of his wife, the princess Barbara of Mantua, had a happy effect upon his character. He became eventually cel ebrated in German history as the founder of the undivided sovereignty and of the representative constitution of Würtemberg. He devoted himself to study, promoted science and literature, and founded in 1477 the university of

Tübingen. He improved the laws and the condition of the convents in Würtemberg, and was a friend of peace, without however shrinking from war. The emperor Maximilian of Germany, who conferred on him the title of duke of Würtemberg (1495), declared at his grave several years afterward: "Here lies a prince who has left no equal in the German empire in princely virtues, and whose advice I have frequently followed with advantage."

EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUST, a German philosopher, born in Halberstadt, Aug. 31, 1739, died Jan. 7, 1809. At first a teacher, he afterward became a pastor, and was one of the first and principal of the German rationalists. In a work entitled Neue Apologie des Sokrates (3d ed., Berlin, 1788), he opposed with great vigor and with what was deemed dangerous latitudinarianism the opinion which had been lately advanced that the virtues of the pagans were only splendid vices. A religious romance entitled Amyntor did not, as it was designed to do, cause the temerities of this apology to be forgotten. In 1778 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the university of Halle, and soon after a member of the academy of Berlin. He was attached to the philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolf, and combated more zealously than successfully the systems of Kant and Fichte. Though his learning was as superficial as it was extensive, and he was rather a rhetorician and historian than a philosophic thinker, he was yet a brilliant and elegant writer. He predicted that the "Critique of Pure Reason" would be in the future only a curious document for a history of the aberrations of the human mind, and he was one of the few adversaries whom Kant honored with a reply. He had affirmed that the critical philosophy was found in other systems, particularly that of Leibnitz, and Kant vanquished but did not silence him by proving that he did not understand Leibnitz. Eberhard maintained the simplicity and identity of the thinking and feeling faculty, the soul being, according to him, active when it thinks, passive when it feels. His writings upon philosophical and æsthetical subjects are numerous.

EBERHARD, KONRAD, a German artist, born in 1768, died in Munich, March 13, 1859. The ex-king Louis was his patron, and sent him in 1806 to Rome, where he laid the foundation of his reputation. In 1816 he became professor of sculpture in the academy of fine arts at Munich. He also painted many pictures illustrating the conflicts, progress, and triumphs of the Christian religion. Among his best works are the tomb of the princess Caroline in the Theatinerkirche, and the statues of St. George and St. Michael before the Isar gate in Munich.

EBIONITES, a party in the early Christian church. The name was first used to designate all in the church who held to Jewish_opinions or practices. Its origin is disputed. Tertullian maintained that one Ebion, a Samaritan Jew, contemporary with the apostle John, was the founder of the sect. But the existence of any

אביונים comes from the Hebrew

66

such man is now generally questioned, and the explanation which Origen gives that the word poor people," is accepted by most critics. Until the 4th century the Ebionites seem to have been identical in practice with the sect of the Nazarenes, and the two sects are in the writings of the fathers frequently confounded. The doctrine of the Ebionites was a mixture of Judaism and Christianity. While they accepted the Old Testament in its integrity, they rejected the New Testament, substituting a gospel based upon the facts in the Gospel of Matthew. This gospel was known to the primitive Christians as the Gospel of the Hebrews." The Ebionites denied the divinity of Christ, retained the practice of circumcision while observing baptism and the Lord's supper, kept the 7th day of the week as a sabbath, and conformed themselves in many things to the ascetic discipline of the Essenes. Their opinions were afterward somewhat modified, and they were divided particularly in their dogma concerning the birth of Jesus and the method of his union with God. As Epiphanius represents them, they believed that Jesus was the incarnation of an exalted superangelic spirit, who came to republish the law which Moses had published before, and which was the law of right and truth given to the original Adam. They were opposed to the doctrine of priestly and monastic celibacy. They interpreted literally the Hebrew prophecies in regard to the Messiah's kingdom, and expected that material reign of Christ which Isaiah describes. The residence of the Ebionites was chiefly in the neighborhood of Jerusalem.

EBN. See ABEN.

EBOLI, ANNA DE MENDOZA, a Spanish princess of the 16th century, the daughter of a viceroy of Peru. At an early age she was introduced at the court of Philip II. by her husband the prince of Eboli, a favorite of the king and preceptor of his son Don Carlos. Though one of her eyes was defective, her beauty attracted general attention, and she became noted for her amorous as well as political intrigues. Foremost among her admirers were the king and his secretary of foreign affairs, Antonio Perez. She was implicated in the assassination of Escovedo, the envoy of Don John of Austria.

EBONY (diospyros ebenum, Willdenow), a tree with hard, heavy wood, native of the East Indies. The black ebony, the most highly prized, grows spontaneously in Ceylon, Madagascar, and Mauritius. There are other colors, however, such as green, red, yellow, and white and black striped. There is another kind called ironwood from its intense hardness. The heart wood of D. reticulata, a lofty tree in Mauritius, is also esteemed. The ebony of the Coromandel coast is derived from D. melanoxylon (Roxburgh). Ebony is likewise procured from D. tomentosa and D. Roylei of the East Indies. The fruit of many of the ebony trees is considered edible by the natives, although it is generally astringent. The famous oblivion-proVOL. VI.-47

ducing fruit of the lotus is supposed to be that of D. lotus of Africa. The persimmon (D. Virginiana, Linn.) of the middle and southern United States is a representative of this genus. The imports of manufactured and unmanufactured ebony into the United States in the year ending June 30, 1858, were valued at $3,394.

EBRO, a river of Spain, the Iberus of the Romans, which formerly gave the name of Iberia to the fine country which it waters. It has its source in the mountains on the N. border of Spain, in the province of Santander, and pursues a S. E. course, flowing at first between lofty and picturesque heights, separating Biscay and Navarre from Old Castile, intersecting Aragon near its centre, and after a course of about 400 m. emptying into the Mediterranean through a double embouchure at Cape Tortosa, near the S. extremity of Catalonia, in lat. 40° 42' N. At Mequinenza it passes through a defile where once was probably a barrier to its waters, restraining them as a lake in the country of Aragon. Its principal tributaries are the Aragon, Gallego, and Segre, on the left or N. side, and the Oca, Jalon, and Guadalupe, on the right or S. It abounds with shoals and rapids, but boats may pass with difficulty as high as Tudela, 180 m. from its mouth. It presents so many obstacles to navigation that a canal has been cut parallel to its bank for a long distance N. of Saragossa and S. of Amposta; and the bed of the river between these 2 points is now being elaborately improved. The principal traffic on the river is the transport of grain, and the floating of timber from the northern forests.

EBULLIOSCOPE, or EBULLITION ALCOHOLOMETER, & form of thermometer used for determining the boiling point of spirituous liquors, from which the quantity of alcohol present is calculated. It is variously graduated as modified by different chemists. That of Dr. Ure is adapted to the scale of Sykes's hydrometer. For the purposes of manufacturers this instrument may be useful, but not for analysis. The boiling point of pure water and the height of the barometer should be noticed in making the observation.

EBULLITION. See BOILING POINT, and EVAPORATION.

ECBATANA, one of the most renowned of ancient cities, the capital of the Median empire, and the favorite summer residence of the kings of Persia. Its foundation, like that of several other towns which were older than historical record, was attributed to Semiramis; and Diodorus locates it near the foot of Mt. Orontes, the modern Elwend. Herodotus assigns to it a later origin, making Deioces its founder, and describes particularly its position upon a conical hill, and its enclosure by 7 concentric walls, each inner one being higher than the next outer one, which were painted with a series of different colors, the innermost wall being gilded, and the next plated with silver. He swells the account beyond probability by saying that the outer wall equalled in circumference that of the

oity of Athens. There are various discordant allusions to Ecbatana in the Bible and in several of the Greek historians, but the comparison of texts and the observations of modern travellers have rendered it probable that this city was founded and flourished subsequently to Babylon and Nineveh, and that it occupied the position ascribed to it by Diodorus and others near the site of the modern city of Hamadan. Its citadel was of enormous strength, and adjoining it was the royal palace, rivalling in elegance the noblest edifices of the East. The fragrant cedar and the cypress were the only kinds of wood that entered into its construction, and its columns, beams, and ceilings were covered with golden and silver plates. Its splendid architecture and spacious apartments, its fountains and gardens, and the mild climate of the place, attracted to it, even after the fall of the Median empire, the sovereigns of Persia, to repose during the summer months from the fatigues of war and the cares of state. Darius fled from his defeat at Arbela to Ecbatana, and Alexander the Great, having become master of the town, bore away a rich booty. Under the Seleucidæ its edifices and palaces were plundered, and its ramparts began to crumble away; yet Antiochus the Great found wealth still remaining to be pillaged. Ecbatana subsequently fell to the Parthians, and was the frequent residence of Parthian kings; but its ruin was completed amid the revolutions which preceded the establishment of the new Persian empire, and of its former magnificence there remain only a few broken columns, cuneiform inscriptions, medals, and fragments of sculpture, dug from the earth in the vicinity of Hamadan. Though most modern travellers and scholars have supposed Hamadan to occupy the site of ancient Ecbatana, Col. Rawlinson, in a learned and most elaborate paper in the "Geographical Journal" (x. 65-158), has contended for the existence of two capitals of this name, one of which he places at Hamadan, and the other in the hill country of Upper Media at Takhti-Soleiman. He accounts for the discrepancies in the ancient allusions by supposing that the two districts of Media were not properly distinguished, and has illustrated the subject by a careful study of all the authorities and localities. The Chaldean form of the name in Ezra (vi. 2), Achmetha, answers both to the name found on the Behistun inscriptions, Hagmatana, and the modern Hamadan. In the Greek, Agbatana, the m of the original form is changed into b, both letters being labial.

ECCALEOBION (Gr. Ekkaλew, to call out, and Bios, life), an apparatus for hatching eggs by artificial heat. A uniformly warm temperature, it is found, is all that is required for successful incubation, and this may as well be supplied artificially as by the hen. This fact was understood by the ancient Egyptians, who made use of stoves for this purpose; and the art is still practised by the modern Egyptians. Public attention was directed to the subject by Réaumur in France more than 100 years ago; and before the

period of the French revolution the operation was successfully conducted in that country by M. Bonnemain, an account of whose apparatus is given by Dr. Ure, from his own observations, under the head of "Incubation, Artificial," in his "Dictionary of Arts." In the "American Journal of Science" (vol. ix., 1824) is an account of a similar apparatus of Mr. Barlow, near London, first published in the Bulletin d'encouragement; and "Chambers's Edinburgh Journal," No. 400, contains an interesting description of the same operation. The apparatus of M. Bonnemain appears to have been the first application of heated water conveyed from a boiler in iron pipes to the warming of apartments. In that of Mr. Barlow the ovens were warmed by steam pipes. Each was an arrangement of shelves one above another, upon which the eggs were placed and kept 21 days, when the chicks came forth. By introducing every day the same number of eggs, the 'apparatus is continued in regular operation, and with greater certainty than when eggs are hatched in the natural way. In order that the eggs may not become too dry, water is evaporated in the ovens. When the chickens emerge from the shells they are left a few hours to become dry, and are then removed to another apartment kept at a temperature of about 80°, where they are left for a day without feeding, the yolk of the egg which passed into the intestines 24 hours previous to the hatching supplying the necessary nourishment for 30 hours after it. They are then fed with millet seed or cracked grain. Care is required at night that they should be provided with warm coops lined with flannel, in which a dozen or so may comfortably nestle together as under the wing of the hen. The advantages of this method of raising chickens are, the large numbers that may be produced with comparatively little cost of attendance; the supplies thus obtained at all seasons of the year; the reduction of the loss occasioned by the frequent death of chickens left to the ordinary method of raising; and the saving effected by the hens being kept constantly laying eggs instead of spending a month or two at a time in the hatching and rearing of their broods. In some localities in Europe advantage has been taken of the heat afforded by hot springs, and eggs have thus been successfully hatched without other expense for the required warmth. Numerous localities in the United States afford opportunities for the same process.

ECCENTRIC, having different centres; in opposition to concentric, which signifies that the centres coincide. In machinery, an eccentric is a crank in which the length of the arm of the crank is very short in comparison with the diameter of the crank; so that it is conceived of as a circle, rotating round a line not passing through its centre.

ECCHELLENSIS, or ECHELLENSIS, ABRAHAM, a learned Maronite, professor of the Syriac and Arabic languages in Paris and in Rome, born at Eckel, in Syria, died in Italy in 1664. He went

to Rome to pursue his studies, and took there the degree of doctor of theology and of philosophy. In 1630 he was invited to Paris to assist in editing the polyglot Bible of Le Jay, and for his services received 600 crowns annually. He contributed to this work the book of Ruth in Syriac and Arabic, and the 3d book of Maccabees in Arabic. In 1642 he returned to Rome, and obtained in that city a professorship of the oriental languages.

ECCLESIA, in ancient Athens, a general assembly of the citizens for the purpose of discussing and deciding matters of public interest. The ordinary assemblies were held 3 times monthly on established days; the extraordinary were specially convened on any sudden and pressing emergency. When the occasion was one of extreme importance, special messengers were despatched into the country to summon the people to attend, and the assembly thus convened was termed a cataclesia. These assemblies were originally held in the Agora; but during the most flourishing periods of Athens, in the times of Themistocles, Pericles, and Demosthenes, they were usually held upon the rock of the Pnyx, where a semi-circular space, partially formed by excavation from the native rock, and containing 12,000 square yards, could accommodate all the Athenian citizens. There were neither seats nor awning, and the assembly met at daybreak. The bema on which the orators stood to address the people was carved from the rock, and yet remains. It was often called "the stone;" and as the destinies of Athens were swayed by the orators who stood upon it, it became a figure of speech for the existing government, and the phrase "master of the stone" indicated the ruling statesman of the day. At a later period the assemblies were often held in the great theatre of Dionysus, and also in the Piræus, and in the theatre at Munychia. The right of convening the citizens was vested in the prytanes, or presidents of the council of 500, but in times of war or sudden emergency the generals also had the power to call extraordinary assemblies. Notice was given of the meeting by public proclamation, and any citizen refusing to obey the call was fined. The poorer classes received a small pecuniary fee for their attendance as a recompense for their time. Before the assembly entered upon any business, a sacrifice, usually of a suckling pig, was offered, and incense was burned. Then the herald proclaimed silence and offered a prayer to the gods; after which, under the direction of the prytanes and the proëdri, or heads of tribes, the subjects to be discussed were stated, and permission given to the speakers to address the people. No measure could be acted upon in the assembly which had not previously received the sanction of the senate, but the decrees of the senate might here be approved, altered, or rejected; and a new bill might be introduced upon a subject which had already been discussed in the senate. According to the older regulations, those persons who

were above 50 years of age had the privilege of speaking first; but this distinction was obsolete in the days of Aristophanes, and citizens of every class and age had an equal right to speak. No new decree, however, could be publicly proposed till it had been shown to the proëdri, that they might see whether it contained any thing injurious to the state or contrary to existing laws. The people voted either by show of hands or occasionally by ballot, the latter method being by white and black pebbles. Beside the legislative powers of the assembly, it could make inquisition into the conduct of magistrates, and in turbulent and excited times exercised a power resembling that of impeachment, as in the cases of Demosthenes and Phocion. The assembly was sometimes suddenly broken up at the occurrence of an unfavorable omen, as thunder and lightning, sudden rain, or any unusual natural phenomenon.

ECCLESIASTES, or the PREACHER (Heb. Koheleth, assembler), one of the didactic books of the Old Testament canon, professing to be the words of the preacher, the son of David, king in Jerusalem. It contains allusions to the writer's riches, palaces, and parables, and its sententious style reminds one of the author of the Proverbs. Yet its diction is marked by Chaldaisms and linguistic usages which are thought not to have been introduced into the Hebrew language till about the period of the Babylonish captivity. The authorship of the Ecclesiastes has been attributed to Solomon, whose claims have often been challenged and always defended; and if it be not his, it must remain entirely uncertain, for no writer of the Babylonian period is known so nearly resembling him in wisdom and wealth of thought. The book consists of philosophical reflections upon human life, and while it affirms: "Vanity of vanities, all is vanity," it also comes to the conclusion of the whole matter in the words: "Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man." Some entertain the opinion that its original form must have been a dialogue in which the sage carries on a discussion with a sceptic and a libertine. Yet it is more commonly regarded as the monologue of a Hebrew moralizing on life and searching for the highest good, scanning the perversities and follies of man, and at length, after a review of the evidence, declaring the verdict that obedience to God is the only real and substantial good.

ECCLESIASTICUS, one of the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, called also the "Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach." The author lived in the 2d or 3d century B. C., and wrote in Hebrew, though no copy of the Hebrew original has been preserved; and his work was subsequently translated into Greek by his grand

son.

The book contains: 1, an anthology of moral and prudential precepts for the various circumstances of life; 2, a discourse which the author puts into the mouth of wisdom herself, inviting men to virtue; and 3, a panegyric in which the author celebrates the praises of God