of Kirk of Field, where the university now stands. Mary's marriage to Bothwell at Holyrood, on the following May 15, raised such disturbances in Edinburgh that the queen and her new husband fled from the city, June 6, pursued by 800 horsemen. In the civil war that ensued Edinburgh was frequently the scene of battle and suffered severely. In 1581 the erection of the college was begun, and the first professor appointed in 1582. In 1603 the city ceased to be the seat of royalty by the accession of James VI. to the crown of England on the demise of Elizabeth. In 1633 Charles I. visited the city and erected the.bishopric of Edinburgh, a measure which gave rise to great disturbances. In Oct. 1643, the solemn league and covenant for the extirpation of prelacy was signed in the High church. The city raised and supported a regiment of 1,200 men to assist the English parliamentarians against Charles. In 1650 the royalist Montrose was executed at the town cross, and 2 months later Charles II. was proclaimed king at the same place. Still 2 months later, and Cromwell, having defeated the Scots at Dunbar, took possession of the city, and subsequently of the castle. From 1663 to 1685, under Charles II., Edinburgh was the scene of the torture and execution of a vast number of Covenanters, martys to their faith. In 1736 occurred the famous Porteous mob. In 1745 Edinburgh was occupied by the forces of the young pretender, Charles Edward, who held it for 5 or 6 weeks, but did not succeed in reducing the castle. EDINBURGH REVIEW, the oldest of the great British quarterly reviews, the first number of which appeared in Edinburgh in Oct. 1802. It was originated by several young men then resident in the Scottish capital, the most prominent of whom were Sydney Smith, Francis Jeffrey, Henry Brougham, and Francis Horner. "I proposed," says Sydney Smith, "that we should set up a review; this was acceded to with acclamation. I was appointed editor, and remained long enough in Edinburgh to edit the first number." He was succeeded in the editorial office by Jeffrey, who retained it till 1829. The "Edinburgh Review" was successful from the commencement; it reached a circulation of 9,000 copies in 6 years, and of 13,000 in 12 years; and its appearance marks an era in journalism. Such elaborate discussions of the principles of politics and taste, written with so much brilliancy and effect, and containing such intrepid criticisms, had not before been attempted in periodical literature. The organ of whigs, it appeared even more liberal from the tone and temper of its articles than from the measures and principles which it advocated, for it favored a free and full discussion, an open field and fair play to argument and wit. It was thus the medium through which the daring ideas in philosophy and political science, that had been elaborated in the 18th century, were made familiar to the general public. Its high literary character was due not only to the talent and refinement of its contributors, but

also to the fact that the articles combined the philosophical treatment of subjects with the critical examination of books. The greatest offences of the review, while under the care of Jeffrey, were in some of the belles-lettres articles, especially those on the poems of Wordsworth, Southey, and Lamb, which were ridiculed severely, flippantly, and, as subsequently admitted by Jeffrey, who wrote the critiques, unjustly. Wordsworth was accustomed to class Robespierre, Bonaparte, and Jeffrey together, as the three most formidable enemies of the human race who had appeared within his remembrance. The last article of Sydney Smith was published in 1827. Sir James Mackintosh had then become an occasional contributor, and Lord Brougham continued to write many political articles. A few years before the withdrawal of Jeffrey he had secured the services of two contributors who maintained the character of the review, Thomas Babington Macaulay and Thomas Carlyle. In 1825 Macaulay, then a student at Cambridge, despatched to the editor without personal acquaintance or introduction his paper on Milton. It was immediately admitted, and from that time till he went to India in 1835 almost every number contained one of his brilliant essays, chiefly on the literature of England. He continued to furnish articles after his return, among which were those on Clive and Hastings, till he began the composition of his history of England. One of his last contributions was his invective against Barrère, "the Anacreon of the guillotine." The articles of Carlyle began in 1827, and continued almost regularly for 6 years. He now atoned for some of the early sins of Jeffrey, who had depreciated Burns, satirized the German literature, "cut up" Goethe, and sneered at Richter. Carlyle furnished a massive panegyric of Burns, and a series of elucidations of the principal German authors. Some of his papers too, as that on the " Signs of the Times," startled the ordinary contributors and supporters of the review by depreciating modern progress, and by regarding the triumphs of machinery as leading only to the subjugation of mind to matter. Upon the resignation of Jeffrey the editorship devolved upon Macvey Napier, known also as an editor of the "Encyclopædia Britannica." He retained the office till near his death in 1847. During this period the whigs came into power, and the review as their organ adopted therefore a tone rather defensive than offensive. It had at first been thought almost an incendiary publication, but a party which deemed it not liberal enough had established the "Westminster Review" in rivalry. Napier was succeeded in the editorship by Prof. Empson, a son-in-law of Lord Jeffrey, who in 1854 was succeeded by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, who in the following year resigned it into the hands of Henry Reeve. Under its later editors the review has assumed a more serious and scholarly and probably less effective character than belonged to it formerly.

Among the prominent contributors since the disappearance of the original staff, have been Sir William Hamilton on topics of mental philosophy and education, J. R. M'Culloch on political economy and the progress of manufactures, Henry Rogers and W. J. Conybeare on the tractarian and latitudinarian movements in the Anglican church, Sir James Stephen on ecclesiastical history and biography, George Moir, G. H. Lewes, and R. Monckton Milnes. A selection of the best articles that had appeared in the "Edinburgh Review" from the commencement to 1833 was made by Maurice Cross (4 vols., London, 1833). Three indexes have been published: to vols. i.-xx. (1813), vols. xxi.-1. (1832), and vols. 1.-lxxx. (1850).

EDINBURGHSHIRE, or MID-LOTHIAN, a maritime co. of Scotland, extending about 36 m. from E. to W., and about 18 m. from N. to S.; area, 397 sq. m.; pop. in 1851, 259,435. Its N. boundary is formed by the firth of Forth, and is studded with important towns and havens. The S. outline is very irregular, being deeply indented by Peeblesshire, from which it is partly separated by a continuation of the Moorfoot range. These hills, the highest of which is nearly 1,900 feet above the sea, occupy an area of nearly 50 sq. m. in the S. E. part of Edinburghshire, but are not entirely unproductive. Many fertile dales lie hidden among them, and a great part of their acclivities is under profitable cultivation. The Pentland hills, which extend from Peeblesshire N. E. into the centre of the county, are bleak and sterile, but afford some fine scenery. The soil, except in the valleys of the Forth and N. and S. Esks, is naturally of inferior quality, and most of the land is used for pasturage, but the farms are skilfully worked. The chief crops are wheat, barley, oats, beans, peas, potatoes, and turnips. Good breeds of sheep and cattle are reared, and milk and butter are sold at the Edinburgh and other markets. The minerals comprise coal, limestone, sandstone, and porphyry. The chief streams are the N. and S. Esks, Gala water, and water of Leith. The county is not extensively engaged in manufactures, though there are various establishments in the chief towns, bleacheries and grist mills on the water courses, and some large paper and gunpowder mills on the N. Esk. Whiskey and the famous Edinburgh ale are the other articles most extensively made. The Union canal and several lines of railway terminating at the capital are the most important channels of inland communication. Principal towns, Edinburgh, Leith, Dalkeith, Musselburgh, and Portobello. The county sends one member to the imperial parliament.

EDISTO, a river of South Carolina, formed by the union of the N. and S. Edisto, the former of which rises in the W. part of Lexington district, and the latter in Edgefield. They unite a few miles W. of Branchville, whence the course of the main stream is S. E. and S. It enters the Atlantic by 2 channels, between which lies Edisto island, about 20 m. S. W. from Charleston. It is navigable 100 m. from the sea.

EDMONDS, JOHN WORTH, an American jurist, more generally known for his advocacy of what is called "Spiritualism," born March 13, 1799, in Hudson, N. Y. He was graduated at Union college in 1816, was admitted to the bar in 1819, and in 1820 commenced the practice of his profession in his native city. In 1831 he was a member of the lower branch of the legislature of New York, and for the 4 years ensuing of the senate and court of errors. Retiring from the legislature in 1836, he spent most of the following two years on special missions from the federal government among the Indians on the frontiers. In 1837 he resumed the practice of the law in the city of New York. In 1843 he became one of the inspectors of the state's prisons, and for two years labored to introduce a reform in prison discipline, by substituting for corporal coercion the system of kindness. The effort was successful, and receiving the sanction of the legislature, inaugurated a new feature in the penitentiary system of the state. In 1845 he was appointed one of the circuit judges of the state of New York. In 1847 he was elevated to the bench of the supreme court, and in 1852 became a member of the court of appeals. At the close of 1853 he retired from the bench, and has since been engaged in the practice of his profession in New York. Early in 1851 he began to investigate the subject of alleged intercourse with the spirits of the departed, and in the summer of 1853 made a public avowal of his belief. The faith he teaches denies the ordinarily received doctrine of the divinity of Christ and his atonement for our sins, and inculcates the ideas that man can and does hold personal communion with the spirits of the deceased, and through it can learn what is the life into which we are ushered after death; that man is the creature of progression, from his birth through eternity; that such progress is the ultimate destiny of all; that it must in all be alike in love, in knowledge, and in purity, for it is also the destiny of each through eternity to be a ministering servant of the Most High in executing the laws of creation; that each may retard or hasten his own progression, but cannot prevent it, and that his immediate future for good or ill is of his own fabrication, for he passes into the next stage of existence precisely what he is in this life, with all his attributes and propensities as he has cultivated or perverted them here. In elucidation of these principles, Judge Edmonds has published several works, the most elaborate of which is entitled "Spiritualism" (2 vols. 8vo., New York, 1853).

EDMONDSON, a central co. of Ky., drained by Green river and Bear creek; area, 225 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 4,088, of whom 325 were slaves. The surface is hilly or moderately uneven; the soil is fertile and suitable for grass and grain. In 1850 the productions were 193,095 bushels of Indian corn, 4,322 of wheat, 34,455 of oats, 86,980 lbs. of tobacco, 7,940 of wool, and 12,891 of flax. There were 5 church

es, and 210 pupils attending public schools. Anthracite coal is abundant, and a considerable portion of the county is occupied by beds of cavernous limestone. The famous Mammoth cave is situated here. This county was organized in 1825, and named in honor of Capt. John Edmondson, who fell at the battle of Raisin river. Capital, Brownsville.

EDMUND I., a king of the Anglo-Saxons, son of King Edward the Elder, and successor of Athelstan, born about 923, ascended the throne in 940, died in 946. The restless Northumbrians immediately after his accession invaded Mercia, but the young king by a rapid march overawed them and forced them to submit, and to embrace Christianity. He had, however, hardly left the country when they again asserted their independence. Edmund next conquered the Britons of Cumbria or Cumberland, and conferred that territory on Malcolm, king of Scotland, on condition that he should do homage for it, and protect the north from all future incursions of the Danes. As Edmund was celebrating a festival in Gloucestershire, he perceived Leolf, a noted outlaw whom he had sentenced to banishment, enter the hall and insolently seat himself at the royal table. Inflamed by passion, he turned to seize the ruffian, when the latter stabbed him fatally in the breast. EDMUND II., surnamed Ironside, a king of the Anglo-Saxons, son and successor of Ethelred II., born in 989, ascended the throne in 1016, died in the same year. Even before his accession he was recognized as the champion of the English cause against the Danes under Canute, but his abilities and hardy valor were unable to prevent the subjugation of the kingdom. Canute was proclaimed at Southampton at the same time that Edmund was recognized by the burgesses of London, and the latter city was immediately besieged by the Danish forces. Edmund, obliged to flee from his capital, raised an army in Wessex, and at Sceastoan in Gloucestershire gave battle to Canute, who was assisted by many disaffected English nobles and prelates under Edric. The battle raged for 2 days, and fortune seemed to have declared for Edmund, when a stratagem of Edric made the victory undecided. He again met his enemies at Brentford and at Otford, but by the perfidy of Edric sustained a decisive discomfiture at Assington. This nobleman, having insinuated himself into the favor of the English monarch, fled with his division at the very onset. The resources of Edmund were not exhausted; he was prepared to meet Canute with a new army, when both the Danish and English troops, wearied of the strife, obliged their kings to come to a compromise, and to divide the kingdom between them by treaty. Mercia and Northumbria were the portion of Canute, and the southern parts were left to Edmund, who is believed to have been murdered at Oxford, thus making way for the accession of Canute.

EDRED, a king of the Anglo-Saxons, son of Edward the Elder, successor of Edmund I.,

ascended the throne in 946, died Nov. 23, 955. The childhood of the 2 sons of Edmund rendering them incompetent to succeed him, Edred in an assembly of the prelates and thanes was chosen king, and consecrated, in the style of his charters, to the "government of the Anglo-Saxons, Northumbrians, pagans, and Britons." Though afflicted with a lingering disease, he marched into Northumbria and quelled the turbulent Danes. In this reign St. Dunstan rose to power, and important ecclesiastical and monastic reforms were undertaken.

EDRISI, an Arabian geographer, supposed to be the person mentioned by historians of his nation under the name of Abou Abdallah Mohammed ben Mohammed ben Abdallah ben Edris, who was a descendant of the Mussulman Edriside princes who reigned at Fez before the Fatimites, born in Ceuta in 1099, died in Sicily about 1164. He studied at Cordova, where he distinguished himself for his knowledge of cosmography, geography, philosophy, medicine, and even astrology, and for his skill as a poet. After visiting Constantinople, Asia Minor, Egypt, Morocco, Andalusia, France, and England, he repaired to Sicily, whither he was invited by King Roger II., a friend of learned men. He made for that prince a terrestrial globe of silver, upon which he inscribed in Arabic characters all that he knew of the various countries of the earth. To explain the globe, he composed a treatise on geography. The globe is lost, but a complete manuscript of the geography was discovered in the imperial library at Paris in 1829, of which a French translation by Jaubert appeared in 1836. Several portions and abridgments of the work had however been published many years before. Edrisi divides the earth into 7 climates or zones, each of which is again divided into 11 regions; and in his descriptions he adheres strictly to his scheme without considering whether his divisions resemble those which have been traced by natural features or society. His work represents the state of geographical knowledge among the Arabs in the 12th century, and although it contains nearly as many errors as there are in Strabo, it was yet the source from which the western geographers derived their notions prior to the Portuguese discoveries in the 15th century.

EDUCATION (Lat. educo, to draw out), the development of the faculties or germs of power in man, and the training of them into harmonious action in obedience to the laws of reason and morality. In a general sense, it embraces the universal means by which Providence is guiding the human race to its final destiny; or it includes the countless natural and social circumstances under the indirect tuition of which individuals pass from the cradle through the career of life; but it more usually and specially designates the instruction and care which parents and masters bestow upon the young to direct their physical, intellectual, æsthetic, and moral development. According to Plato, a good education consists in giving to the body and the

soul all the perfection of which they are susceptible; according to Rousseau, in making the primitive instincts and dispositions the constant guides of character and action; and according to Kant, there is within every man a divine ideal, the type after which he was created, the germs of a perfect person, and it is the office of education to favor and direct the growth of these germs. Yet education not only aims at the development and culture of the child as an individual, but is also the means by which every rising generation is put in possession of all the attainments of preceding generations, and becomes capable of increasing and improving this inheritance. It thus secures the regular progress of society, and has for its end to fashion childhood to an order of things and of ideas which it is designed to establish or perpetuate. Thus, according to Aristotle, "the most effective way of preserving a state is to bring up the citizens in the spirit of the government; to fashion, and as it were to cast them in the mould of the constitution." "The task of the instructor," says Herbart, "consists in transmitting and interpreting to the new generation the experience of the race." Education therefore has reference to the economy of society; it constitutes the apprenticeship of those who are afterward to take a place in the order of a civilized community; and, as universal knowledge and skill are impossible, it varies for the different states and classes of men, like the different pursuits of life. In the earliest ages, the entire education and culture of the people were in the hands of priests, who were the first founders of institutions, the first savants, statesmen, judges, physicians, astronomers, and architects; and science has been separated from religion, and teaching has been a distinct profession, only in the most highly civilized communities. Even in these, learning and schools have often been to a greater or less extent, more or less directly, under the patronage and care of religious bodies, since religion has been esteemed by all nations the highest interest of society.-At a very ancient era, though less remote than they themselves pretend, the Chinese possessed a high degree of culture. The Chinese sage, Confucius (born 551 B. C.), was the restorer and not the founder of their civilization, and expressly disclaimed writing any thing which had not long been recognized in the legis lation and science of his ancestors. The principles established by him and by Mencius (nearly 2 centuries later) still prevail in Chinese pedagogy. The course of instruction begins in the family, where the boys are taught to enumerate objects, to count to the number of 10,000, and to reverence their parents and ancestors by a minute ceremonial. At the age of 5 or 6 years they are sent to school. On entering the hall, the pupil makes obeisance first to the holy Confucius and then to his master. A lesson learned in grammar, history, ethics, mathematics, or astronomy, according to the proficiency of the student, is followed by the morning repast; after which the day is spent in copying, learning

by heart, and reciting select passages of literature. Before departure at night a part of the pupils relate some of the events of ancient history, which are explained by the master; others unite in singing an ancient ode, which is sometimes accompanied by a symbolic dance. They leave the hall with the same obeisances with which they enter it, and on reaching home reverentially salute the domestic spirits, and their ancestors, parents, and relatives. For the sons of the nobles a higher course of instruction is provided in universities under the surveillance of the state. One of these exists in most of the large cities, and the most advanced of them is the imperial college in Pekin. Candidates for admission into the last are required to pass a strict examination, and the graduates from it are at once appointed to public office. In no other country, with perhaps the exception of Prussia, is a learned education the means of official promotion so much as in China. The education of girls is neglected, but the daughters of the wealthy are generally taught to read, write, sing, and sometimes to make verses.-Historians usually account the inhabitants of India the most highly educated of the ancient nations of the East. Yet Hindoo learning and science have always been almost exclusively in the hands of the caste of Brahmins, who only are allowed to explain the Vedas or sacred books to the two castes next in rank. The fourth and much the most numerous caste of Soodras, or laborers, are excluded from all privileges of education, and forbidden even to listen to the reading of the sacred books. The elementary schools are now held in the open air, and the instruction ordinarily begins with writing. The boys, sitting naked on the ground, write in the sand, or on palm leaves, a series of moral sentences from the ancient writings. These are also committed to memory. The Vedas are taught separately in the schools of the Brahmins, and embrace not only the higher doctrines of mythology, but also of mathematics, astrology, and philosophy. Hindoo masters especially inculcate the rules of politeness, the art of elegant conversation, the countenance which ought to be assumed according to occasions, and innumerable minute practices of etiquette and duplicity. The education of women, to whom the laws of Manu ascribe a mingled character of malice and deceit, is totally neglected, and it is a disgrace for them to know how to read. Only the courtesans learn to read, sing, and dance. Schools have been established by the British government, and also by the natives, in which there are generally two departments, in one of which the English language, sciences, and literature are taught, and in the other the Sanscrit, Persian, or Arabic languages and literature. The early culture of the Egyptians was such, that the Greeks derived from them their first lessons in science and philosophy. In Egypt, too, the Israelites obtained the knowledge which enabled them to measure and "divide the land." Learning and political power were chiefly in the hands of the

priests, among whom the greater part of the lands were distributed. Public education existed only in the castes of priests and warriors, until it became more general after the rise of the Persian and Greek dominion. While the mass of the people were trained to the mechanical arts, a few only were instructed in the mathematical sciences, and in the doctrines of morality and divinity. An esoteric culture was reserved to the priests themselves, whose principal schools were at Thebes, Memphis, and Heliopolis. The allusions of the Greeks, and the inscriptions on the monuments, prove an early knowledge of geometry, astronomy, mensuration, and surveying in Egypt, and from the time of Thales the wisest of the Greeks went to study in that country. Iamblichus says that Pythagoras derived thence his information upon different sciences, and that he complied with the minutest regulations of the priests, in order to overcome their repugnance to impart ing their theories. Plato, it is said, was a disciple of them, and states that "when Solon inquired of them about ancient matters he perceived that neither he nor any one of the Greeks had any knowledge of very remote antiquity." It was not unusual for female children of the priestly families to acquire an education, but the populace in general were trained only to follow in the occupation of their parents and kinsmen. At a later period a part of Egypt came within the circle of Greek civilization, and the schools of Alexandria and other cities of the delta became as renowned as those of Thebes and other more southern cities had formerly been. The two Alexandrian libraries, one of which was destroyed under Theodosius the Great, and the other by command of the caliph Omar I. (A. D. 642), were the most remarkable monuments of ancient learning.-The culture of the ancient Persians was the exclusive care of the magi, a priestly caste of Median origin, who were the savants of the empire, the legislators, judges, interpreters of dreams, astrologers, and highest functionaries at court. They ruled the Persians for ages by the force of intellect alone. To them were intrusted the preservation and establishment of the doctrines and laws of Zoroaster. There was no general system of national education, but the instruction was simple for the people, learned and religious for the magi, and military and political for the warriors. The faults of children were not regarded as sins till the age of 8 years, when they were first taught to say their prayers. The intellectual culture was but trifling except to those who were to inherit the learning of the magi, but the moral education inculcated the civil virtues and strict habits of truth and justice, while in physical training the Persians surpassed all other eastern nations. Their fundamental maxim was to combine a meagre fare with violent gymnastic exercises. According to Herodotus, "their sons were carefully instructed from their 5th to their 20th year in 3 things alone, to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth." The Cyropa

dia of Xenophon is a romantic picture of the Persian mode of education. It presents the whole population divided into 4 classes according to age, and meeting at appointed times in the 4 divisions of the public edifices, which were far removed from the market places. The boys till the age of 17 years were taught to know and to practise justice, and to entertain right sentiments toward the divinity, their country, their parents, and their friends. They lodged at home, took their slight meals under the care of their masters, learned to handle the bow and javelin, and were prompted to admire and imitate those aged men who were noted for exemplary virtues. From the age of 17 to 27 years they passed their nights in the public edifice, that the purity of their morals might be strictly guarded, learned the arts of war, were accustomed to rise early, to bear cold and heat, to walk, to run, and to follow the chase. During the 25 following years they were accounted ripe men, and obeyed their superiors in war. Above the age of 52 they were reckoned among old men, renounced martial service, and administered justice in public and private affairs. Such an education and career was legally open to every citizen, but only the wealthier classes could avail themselves of the public schools, since it was necessary not only to dispense with the labor of their children, but also to pay their expenses.-The theocratic constitution of the Hebrew nation, and the foundation of its politics and ethics on religion, produced a mental cultivation as manifested in its literature very unlike that found among any other oriental people. The schools of the prophets are the only schools which are mentioned, but children were generally instructed by their parents in the law of Moses and the history of the nation. The obedience of children to the commands of their parents is a frequent injunction in the Scriptures. Girls were taught to sing, to play upon musical instruments, and to dance on solemn occasions; and many female poets and learned women figure in the history of the ancient Jews. After the exile the rabbins established schools to which children were sent from their 5th or 6th year, and in which, beside the teaching of the Scriptures, the commentaries and traditions, the Mishna and Gemara, were taught and committed to memory. The instruction was oral, no student ever taking notes, and the Mishna had long been transmitted from master to pupil before it was committed to writing. The most celebrated of the early rabbinical schools were those of Jamnia (long under the direction of Gamaliel, and at which Saint Paul studied), Tiberias, Alexandria, Babylon, and Jerusalem. During the greater part of the middle ages Jewish astronomers, physicians, poets, and philosophers were scattered through Spain, Italy, and France, and the cities of northern Africa and western Asia. Their greatest schools flourished in Egypt, Fez, Andalusia, and Languedoc.—Of the methods of Greek education, a connected account may be formed from the numerous scat