gli and Calvin, the latter of whom caused the erection of a splendid edifice for the gymnasium of Geneva, to which 8 distinguished professors of Hebrew, Greek, philosophy, and theology were invited. About this time the gymnasium of Strasbourg under Johann Sturm became the most flourishing of the age, and in 1578 it had more than 1,000 students, 300 of whom were of noble or princely birth. Its best influence was in improving the taste, for Sturm taught the classical languages for their own merits, and not as auxiliaries to theology. He therefore banished from the school all writings in barbarous Latin, and urged children from the age of 7 years to speak with each other and their professors in choice Ciceronian phrases. He made them commit to memory select passages from the classics as they were translated to them, before the details of grammar had been mastered. Sturm was the friend and correspondent of Roger Ascham of England, one of the most learned men of the age, and the author of a treatise on the "Schoolmaster." The school of Trotzendorf, at Goldberg, was distinguished for the organization of its discipline, the forms of which were borrowed from the old Roman republic. He was the perpetual dictator, and beneath him were a censor, 2 consuls, and a senate of the 12 most advanced pupils. Every grave question was discussed before this senate, and was decided by it. The ancient crowns were revived for prizes, the best orator being rewarded in the manner of a victor at the Olympic games. Bugenhagen at Hamburg, Spalatin at Altenburg, Neander at Nordhausen, and Heyden at Nuremberg, were also among the most successful Protestant teachers of this period.-The Protestants having awakened a zeal for learning, the Jesuits determined to avail themselves of this zeal in the interest of the Catholic church, and to combat the reformation with its own weapon. They cultivated to the highest possible degree all departments of science, and employed the authority of learning in favor of the pontifical power. The principle of their method was to train the memory, the imagination, and the reasoning faculty, but to check all discursive mental habits. Latin and logic furnished most of the exercises by which the sentiments and tenets of Catholicism were instilled into the minds of youth. Of the classical Latin authors only Cicero and Virgil were used, the other Latin text books being medieval writers. Greek was taught only from the works of Chrysostom and other Christian fathers. Philosophy formed a part of the higher course, and was taught from Aristotle as interpreted by Aquinas. The polished and pleasing exterior of masters and students, the kindness apparent in the treatment of young persons, the tender care bestowed upon sick pupils, the pompous occasional celebrations, and the theatrical performances which were often made a school exercise, all contributed to the extraordinary success of the Jesuits as teachers. From Cologne, Ingolstadt, and Vienna, they spread between 1550 and 1560 throughout Ger

many. Opposed in France by the Sorbonne, the university, and the parliaments, they did not establish their first school in Paris till 1665, but in 1750 they had won from the ancient Benedictines their pedagogic laurels, and possessed in France 669 schools, which were attended by the children of the princes and nobles. Yet the education of females was much less cared for by them than by their opponents the Jansenists. The girls belonging to the upper classes connected with the society were educated religiously rather than learnedly in the numerous houses of the sisters of St. Ursula, or by the nuns of St. Angelica or St. Elizabeth.-Between the latter part of the 17th and the close of the 18th century, 4 distinct theories and methods of the pedagogic art arose, which are usually named the pietistic school, the humanistic school, the philanthropic school, and the eclectic school. Jansenius in France, the Wesleys in England, and especially Spener and Francke in Germany, were the first representatives of the pietistic tendency. The writings of Fénélon, the author of "Telemachus" and of a treatise on the education of girls, which still remains a standard work in France, exerted perhaps a similar influence. Spener was the teacher of Francke, who established a school at Halle for children of both sexes, and another for teachers, on the principle that religious and moral instruction should be made more prominent than intellectual acquirements, that the end of education should be a living knowledge of God and of pure Christianity. It was succeeded by similar schools in many other cities, and one of its early graduates was Count Zinzendorf. In Greek the New Testament was the only text book. Hebrew was one of the studies of the regular course, and a change of heart was declared essential to successful scholarship. Among the collaborators of Francke were Rambach, Freyer, Hoffmann, Büsching, and Steinmetz. The humanistic school maintained the principle that the ancient languages and literature, especially the Greek and Latin (which were termed the humanities), should be the foundation of education, and should be exclusively studied till the pupil went to the university. Among the more eminent humanists were Cellarius, Gesner, Ernesti, Morus, Reiske, Hermann, Schaefer, Schneider, Heyne, Wolf, Voss, Creuzer, Bockh, and Jacobs, many of whom prepared admirable editions of the classics and works on classical archæology; and their principles have been most nearly followed in the schools of Saxony and the Netherlands, in the seminary of St. Thomas in Leipsic, and in the gymnasium of Strasbourg. New ideas upon education were developed by Comenius, Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau. Some of the educational works of Comenius were translated into several languages, and his Orbis Pictus long remained a popular household book, and the model of picture books. His aim was to make education more simple and conformable to nature, to have more regard for diversities of character, to teach nothing which could not be

understood by the pupil, and to render the process of learning easy and agreeable. Locke applied to education the principles of the Baconian philosophy by which a scientific realism was substituted for the old logical verbalism, and things rather than books made the sources of knowledge, and urged the union of a due regard to positive and practical science with the culture of the intellect through the medium of language. The Emile of Rousseau contains a system of education founded on the ideas but not the experience of its author, and presents an ideal and joyous view of domestic culture most strongly in contrast with the circumstances of his own life. The early education of the child is, according to him, of the greatest importance, and the charge of it can properly belong only to the mother and the father. In the long procession of things to be learned, nothing appears till the student is prepared to grasp it without difficulty, and the attainments in knowledge come almost unconsciously by a series of easy steps. The child, too, should be educated not for a trade or profession, but for the common and absolute state of man; should not therefore subject himself to any thraldom of habit, but be independent of every thing about him, and master of himself. Shielded from the corruptions of society and the trammels of conventionalism, and left open to the influences of nature and of conscience, the character should perfect itself intellectually, socially, and morally. Parents were allured to study a system which seemed to remove all trouble, labor, and care from the concerns of life. Education was to become an amusement, and man a reasonable creature, without annoyance, without perverted inclinations, without even a futile effort. To realize the theories of Rousseau was the task of Basedow, and he succeeded in effecting great changes in the nature of education in Germany. He announced an immense institution to be founded at Dessau, and to be called the Philanthropinum, in which the child was to remain till he was a man and a citizen. The Elementarwerk, in which he exhibited his plan, received subscriptions from princes, magistrates, ministers of state, and the most distinguished learned men of Germany and Switzerland, all entertaining an exaggerated enthusiasm for the new human culture, in which nature was to take the place of discipline. An ideal was conceived in striking contrast with the reigning severity of masters, primness of pupils, perruques and swords of little boys, and hoop petticoats of little girls. The Philanthropinum was established in 1774, under the care of Basedow and Wolke, but declined after a momentary splendor, It was continued with better success by Simon and Schweighäuser, and similar institutions were founded at various places in Germany, only one of which, at Schnepfenthal in Gotha, still continues. Under the name of eclectics are classed those who were the disciples of no exclusive school, but from truly philanthropic motives sought to instruct classes

hitherto neglected. Such was the origin of the efforts for the instruction of deaf mutes by Heinicke, Braidwood, the abbé de l'Epée, and Sicard; the instruction of the blind by Valentin Haüy, Klein, and Lenné; the institution of Sunday schools by Robert Raikes, Oberlin, and others; the organization of reformatories by Odisculchi and Fata Giovanni in Rome, and by the philanthropic society in London; and many of the special schools of commerce, agriculture, mines, the arts of design, and other departments.-In Germany since the latter part of the last century the principles of education have been actively discussed, the most prominent writers on the subject being Sulzer, Miller, Weisse, Ehlers, Büsch, Feder, Resewitz, Gurlitt, Funk, Roetger, Heusinger, Niemeyer, Schwartz, and Beneke. But the man who for the last hundred years has exerted the greatest influence on education is the Swiss Pestalozzi. According to the principles developed by him in various writings, education must begin early, under the discipline of home and the direction of parental wisdom and power. It must proceed according to the laws of nature, slowly and uninterruptedly, the teacher exciting the child to activity and rendering him but a limited amount of assistance. Individuality must be held sacred, and carefully studied and encouraged. Verbal teaching is futile unless it be implanted on previous mental experiences and verified by the senses. A development by merely mental operations, which the Socratic method favors, is vain and harmful, for the child can only utter a judgment concerning an object when he has examined it experimentally, and learned precisely to distinguish its qualities and attributes by words. Form, number, and language are the elements of knowledge, the principles by which the mind must be developed; and a thorough acquaintance with them in the various departments of learning constitutes an education. Therefore mental arithmetic, geometry, and the arts of drawing and modelling objects of beauty, are as important exercises as the study of languages. The school should be a place of liveliness and activity, and the scholar should have opportunity to exercise and reveal his power. The system of Pestalozzi has been adopted in the Prussian schools with slight modifications, and has exerted a greater influence than any other on teachers in England, America, and the north of Europe. His system was modified by Fellenberg in his institution at Hofwyl, by Jacotot in the university of Louvain, and by Felbiger, bishop of Sagan, in the schools which he organized. There were combined at Hofwyl an agricultural institute, theoretical and practical, a rural school for the poor, a superior school for the sons of the nobility, an intermediate school for those of the middle classes, and a normal school for the instruction of the teachers of the canton. The system of Fellenberg varied from that of Pestalozzi only by communicating more practical and positive knowledge. The method of Jacotot, which has

been generally adopted in Belgium, gives greater exercise to the faculty of memory; he required his pupils to recite by heart all their lessons, whether in the languages or the sciences. The method of Sagan, so named from the see of its author, is a combination of the methods of Basedow and Pestalozzi, was propagated in Bohemia by command of Maria Theresa, and was in vogue throughout Austria till 1842. It regarded education only from a utilitarian point of view, and aimed to amuse the scholar while instructing him, and to make the lessons as clear as possible, passing to the unknown from the known. It rapidly traversed numerous branches of study. Joseph Lancaster (died in 1839), a member of the society of Friends in England, was the founder of the monitorial system, by which the most intelligent pupils in a school were required to teach their fellows what they had learned in advance of them. This plan doubtless developed the intellect of the monitor, and was at one time adopted in many schools in large towns in England and America, but has been abandoned from the fact that the incomplete and confused knowledge of the premature teachers often made their instructions rather akin to error than to truth.-Germany, with most of the other continental countries, England, and the United States present three different methods of administering the national elementary education. The Prussian educational system is purely governmental, emanating solely from a minister of instruction immediately dependent on the crown. The universities, the gymnasia, and the primary schools are all under laws and regulations which proceed respectively from the crown, from the provincial government, and from the communes. Every child in the kingdom is obliged under pains and penalties to attend school at least from the age of 7 to that of 14, and the result is that the Prussian people are efficiently educated throughout the entire community, and that the universities send forth a large body of highly educated men. Yet with their vast and powerful machinery for popular instruction, the Prussians have not taken a leading part in civilization, and the reason is stated by Horace Mann to be, that when the children once leave school they have few opportunities of applying the knowledge or exercising the faculties which have been acquired and developed there. The national education of all the German states closely resembles that of Prussia. The universities, colleges, and primary schools of France (the latter of which were organized in 1833 under the administration of Guizot, from reports on the German system of popular education made by Cousin), are in like manner established and directed by governmental author

ity. Permission is however given to any teacher under certain conditions to open a private school; and denominational schools may be registered on the government list of educational institutions. But in England no schools (except those connected with pauper, naval, military, and penal establishments) are initiated by the civil government, or to any considerable extent managed by it. The education of the people is under the care of the established church and of the other religious organizations, and the government comes to their aid by bestowing grants on certain conditions when its assistance is required. The system is entirely different in the United States, where, though the state governments take the initiative, they only go so far as to ordain that schools of a certain character must exist among a given population. All the questions concerning the buildings, teachers, and methods of instruction are determined by the people in their capacity of free citizens. The government provides for education, but makes the people its agent in accomplishing the provision. Consequently, there is much diversity in the educational condition of different parts of the country, the school system being generally most complete in the most compactly settled states, especially those of New England. The efforts of Henry Barnard, Horace Mann, Daniel P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others, during the last 20 years, have been influential in introducing large and well-directed measures and plans for the improvement of public education in America.-Among the most valuable treatises on the subject are: Schwarz, Erziehungslehre (Leipsic, 1829); Cramer, Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichts in welthistorischer Entwickelung (Leipsic, 1832'38); Von Raumer, Geschichte der Pädagogik seit dem Wiederaufblühen classischer Studien (Stuttgart, 1843-52); Fritz, Esquisse d'un système complet d'instruction et d'éducation (Strasbourg, 1841-'43); Théry, Histoire de l'éducation en France (Paris, 1858); educational reports of the Canadian school system, and of the superintendents and boards of education of the different states of the American Union; Henry Barnard, "National Education in Europe" (Hartford, 1854), "Journal of Education" (6 vols., Hartford, 1856-'59), also educational tracts, and reports on the public schools of Connecticut and Rhode Island; and Horace Mann, "Annual Reports of the Massachusetts Board of Education" (Boston, 1837-'48), and “Lectures on Education" (Boston, 1855). The educational systems and statistics of different states and countries are given under their respective titles. See also COLLEGE, COMMON SCHOOLS, NORMAL SCHOOLS, SCHOOLS, UNIVERSITY.