were many judicious provisions in the institute, among which was an improvement of the representation, similar in principle to that which was adopted by England in 1832. Parliament was to meet in Sept. 1654, and until that time the protector and his council were to have unlimited power. Cromwell was to hold office for life, and the council of state was to choose his successor, but at a later period Cromwell was authorized to name him. So far as he could, the protector revived monarchical forms. A variety of ordinances were passed of an arbitrary character, and many of the government's deeds would have disgraced the worst times of the Stuarts. Cromwell's defence is the necessity of the case, which must pass for what it is worth. There was no lack of vigor in the government, and though the protector did all that he could to conciliate the royalists, which was not much, he found them inveterately hostile, and their baser spirits bent on assassinating him. A plot was detected in 1654, and two of the conspirators were executed. Following the course of the government he had overthrown, the protector's foreign policy was bold and manly, save that in making peace with the Dutch he abandoned the high position which the statesmen of the commonwealth had assumed, though the war had been successful. A favorable treaty of commerce was made with Sweden. Parliament met Sept. 3, 1654. Care had been taken to exclude from it men whose hostility to the protectorate was supposed to be unchangeable, and no man who had been on the royal side in the civil war was even allowed to vote for members. Still some inveterate republicans were chosen, and Bradshaw, their leader, moved for a committee of the whole to deliberate whether the house would approve of the new system of government, which was carried. Warm discussions followed, upon which the protector locked the members out of their hall, and would allow none to return to it who would not sign an engagement that the government was legal. Nearly two-thirds signed, but the rest refused; but the servile majority soon fell to questioning the "institute," and government was in a minority, whereupon Cromwell dissolved the parliament. A despotism was established, followed by both royalist and republican plots, which failed, and many of those engaged in them were punished. Numerous arrests were made of persons not even suspected of crime, the object being to strike terror into the public mind. The royalists were very harshly dealt with. England and Wales were divided into 12 districts, the military command in each being vested in a major-general. Beside having control over most of the ordinary affairs of life, the commissions of these officers contained a special order from the protector that they should observe and follow such directions as they should from time to time receive from him. Never before or since has England known so iron a rule, and to the wrongs that were common under it must

be attributed not a little of that folly which, 5 years later, brought about the restoration without any thing having been done to secure the rights of the people. To atone for this denial of freedom to his subjects, the protector gave them glory. France and Spain contended for the English alliance, and France succeeded. The Spanish possessions in America were assailed, and Jamaica was taken. Admiral Blake was successful in the Mediterranean, against the Barbary powers and Tuscany. The influence of England put an end to the massacre of the Vaudois. Rich spoils were taken from the Spanish fleets. Appeals were made to Cromwell for assistance from various states. These proceedings were expensive, and funds ran so low that it became necessary to call a parliament, to meet Dec. 17, 1656. The elections caused much excitement. To prevent their return, eminent republicans were imprisoned. But the majority was adverse to Cromwell, who thereupon excluded more than 100 of them from the house. Wishing to gain popularity, he allowed parliament to put an end to the power of the major-generals. It was moved that the protector should take the title of king, and, after much debating and intriguing, this was carried, as were some other provisions calculated to restore the old English polity. Cromwell longed for the crown, but he dared not accept it against the determined opposition of some of the highest military officers, and the general sense of the army. He accordingly refused the offer. The other provisions were adopted, and the lord protector was newly inaugurated, with great pomp and solemnity. Parliament adjourned, to give him time to create a house of lords. When it reassembled, the excluded members having been restored, the commons refused to recognize the other house, and Cromwell dismissed this, his last parliament, his last words to it being: "Let God judge between me and you!" to which some of the republicans answered: "Amen!" The brief remainder of his life was passed amid plots, having his murder for their end. He had such good intelligence that every thing became known to him, and the plots uniformly failed. Yet the precautions he had to adopt were of a humiliating character, and resembled those of the Greek tyrants. He was much in need of money for the public service, but he dared not impose taxes by his own authority. Meantime his foreign policy went on successfully, the bonds of alliance between England and France being of the strongest nature. English forces fought side by side with the French against the Spaniards, the latter having some of the banished English cavaliers under their banners. Cromwell told the men of the army he sent to Louis XIV.'s aid that they were to show the same zeal for the monarch that they showed for himself; and Louis and his minister (Mazarin) evinced their attachment to Cromwell in various ways. Had the protector lived, he would probably

แ

have found the means of carrying on his government. Another parliament was thought of, from which the republicans were to be excluded, and Cromwell's last public act was to dissolve the committee that had the subject under deliberation. In the summer of 1658 his 2d daughter, Elizabeth Claypole, died; and as she was his favorite, and his disposition was affectionate, the effect on his shattered body and disturbed mind was serious. After some previous illness, he was forced to confine himself to his room, Aug. 24, 1658, from a tertian fever. On Sept. 3, the anniversary of Dunbar and Worcester, and known as his "fortunate day," he died, at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, and in the midst of the most terrible storm of those times, which both friends and enemies connected with his death, but with different associations. The remains of the protector were soon consigned to Henry VII.'s chapel, as it was impossible to keep them, corruption having followed death immediately, with singular rapidity and violence; but the public funeral, a gorgeous ceremony, took place Nov. 23. After the restoration, his body was disinterred, and gibbeted at Tyburn, and then buried under the gallows, the head being placed on Westminster hall. There was long current, however, a story that the protector's body, by his own directions, was buried in Naseby field, at midnight, in a grave 9 feet deep; and in itself this story is not improbable, but it was coupled with the assertion that the body gibbeted at Tyburn was that of Charles I., which was discovered at Windsor in 1813, so that the tale can no longer be regarded as true, though it is with reluctance that its want of foundation is admitted.-Cromwell had 5 sons: Robert, born 1621, died 1639; Oliver, born 1623, died in battle, 1648; James died in infancy; Richard and Henry survived him. He had 4 daughters: Bridget, married, first to Ireton, and then to Fleetwood, a woman of decided character, died at the age of 57, in 1681; Elizabeth, born 1629, married to John Claypole, died 1658; Mary, born 1637, married to Viscount (afterward earl of) Fauconberg, died 1712; Frances, born 1638, married, first to Robert Rich, 1657, and, Rich dying in a few months, then to Sir John Russell, died 1721. The wife of the protector survived him 14 years, dying Oct. 8, 1672, after having lived in retirement since the downfall of her family. There are many lives of Cromwell, the best of which for general readers is that to be found in Mr. Forster's "Statesmen of the Commonwealth of England." Mr. Carlyle's "Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches" is a work of great excellence, but the author's purpose of seeing no wrong in his hero's conduct lessens its value. Mr. Gleig's "Lives of the most eminent British Military Commanders" contains a good military biography of the protector. Most of the other biographies are worthless, either from the ignorance or the prejudices of their authors. Clarendon's great work has always been popular, and

it bears hard upon Cromwell. Even the able volumes of M. Guizot, who has gone over the whole 35 years from the accession of Charles I. to the restoration, are tinged with his peculiar views, and are not always just either to the statesmen of the long parliament or to Cromwell individually; but they contain much matter not to be found elsewhere. Mr John Langton Sanford's "Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion" contains much valuable matter concerning Cromwell, admirably told, but it terminates with the battle of Marston Moor. It corrects many errors in Cromwell's history that have long been received as truths.-RICHARD, 3d and eldest surviving son of the foregoing, and second lord protector, born at Huntingdon, Oct. 4, 1626, died at Cheshunt, near London, July 12, 1712. He became a student of Lincoln's Inn, 1647, where he remained 2 years. He did not study much, but devoted himself to the pleasures of the field and the table, to the former of which he had become attached while leading a rural life in the early years of the civil war. In politics he is said to have been a royalist, and to have interceded with his father for the king's life. In 1649 he married Dorothy, daughter of Richard Mayor, of Hursley, where they resided during most of Oliver's protectorate, Richard indulging in hunting and hospitality. Oliver did not think highly of his son's capacity, and was pleased to see him remain in the country. When the protectorate was established, Richard was elected to parliament, for various places, on different occasions, and Oliver endeavored to train him to the art of government. He succeeded his father as chancellor of Oxford university, was made a colonel, and a lord of trade and navigation. When the protector sought to create a house of peers, his eldest son was placed at its head, with the title of the Right Hon. Lord Richard, &c. On Oliver's death, Richard succeeded to the place of lord protector as regularly and as easily as Charles I. had succeeded James I. A parliament was called, which met Jan. 27, 1659, to which he made a sensible speech, and for a short time things went on well. In parliament, however, he was not strong, and the army was not attached to one who was at heart a royalist. A meeting of the officers was held, at which it was resolved that the army should be commanded by some one person. The protector applied to parliament for advice, at the suggestion of the council; and that body condemned the action of the army, and declared that the officers should hold no more meetings without the protector's permission. This brought matters to a crisis. The officers compelled Richard to dissolve parliament, which event was soon followed by his own resignation. He was not equal to the place in which circumstances had placed him. To the remonstrances his determination excited he replied that his resolution was fixed, that violent councils did not suit him, and the like. His retirement drew upon him

reproaches from all sides, which have been repeated for two centuries. Even Macaulay speaks of him as "that foolish Ishbosheth," who could not preserve an authority which any man of ordinary firmness and prudence would have retained." Just before the restoration, the Cromwellians wished to replace Richard at the head of the nation, but it was too late for such an act to be attempted, even if he had himself been willing to return to Whitehall. He retired to Hursley, his wife's estate, that lady feeling far more the fallen condition of the family than her husband. In July, 1660, he left England for the continent, but less on account of political than for personal reasons. His debts amounted to £30,000. He resided at Paris, under the name of Wallis, for 20 years, making two visits to Geneva. He was little known, and sometimes had his feelings wounded by expressions of contempt for his poltroonery from strangers. He returned to England in 1680, his debts having been paid, took the name of Clarke, and resided at Cheshunt. His life was retired. One of his few friends was Dr. Watts, who never heard him mention his former greatness more than once, and then indirectly. A lawsuit with his daughters, in his extreme old age, brought him before the public, in the reign of Queen Anne. The judge treated him with much consideration, and his conduct was approved by the queen. Richard won his cause. He lived to be nearly 86, dying at Cheshunt, in the house of Sergeant Pengelley, who was supposed to be his natural son, and who rose to eminence in the law. He was buried in the chancel of Hursley church, where one of his daughters erected a monument to his memory. He left no legitimate son. His son Oliver, who appears to have been a man of some capacity, was active in the revolution of 1688-'9, and offered to raise a regiment to serve in Ireland, provided he were allowed to nominate his captains; but the name was yet too formidable to warrant government in accepting the offer. He died May 11, 1705. -HENRY, 2d surviving son of the first lord protector, born at Huntingdon, Jan. 20, 1628, died March 23, 1673. He was educated at Felstead, but as he entered the parliamentary army at the age of 16, he could not have known much of schools. Before he was 20 he had a troop in the lord general Fairfax's life guards. He was made a colonel in 1649, and went with his father to Ireland, where he served throughout those fierce wars that subjugated the country, distinguishing himself on several occasions. In the first parliament that his father called, the "Barebone's parliament," he sat as one of the 6 Irish members. He was married, in 1653, to Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Francis Russell, a lady of whom much that is good is reported. The university of Cambridge elected him to parliament in 1654. In 1655 he was sent to Ireland as a major-general, and eventually he was made lord deputy. He was well received in that country, and he justified the reception by the admirable manner in which

he governed it. Men of all parties united in praising his wise and benevolent action; and Ireland rose rapidly to prosperity under his rule. He is said to have inclined in politics to royalist principles, which was not uncommon with members of Cromwell's family. When Oliver died, Henry exerted himself to have his brother's authority acknowledged in Ireland, and with entire success. The troubles that befell Richard in England, however, soon had a prejudicial effect on Irish affairs. Henry was annoyed in various ways by his brother's enemies, and he sought to throw up the government of Ireland, in order that he might reply to attacks that had been made on him in England, and to assist the protector. His request was refused, probably because the republicans feared him, well knowing that he was a very different man from Richard. When the protector retired, Henry resolved to place the Irish government in the hands of Charles II.; but the long parliament recalled him, and placed the government in the hands of commissioners. He obeyed the summons, and parliament expressed approbation of his conduct. So poor was he that he had not money enough of his own to pay his expenses from Dublin to London. The readiness with which he surrendered his government does not confirm the common impression that if he had been appointed his father's successor, he would have maintained the place. He lacked ambition. Henry resided for some years with his fatherin-law, Sir. F. Russell, at Chippenham. Thence he went to a retired estate of his own, called Spinney Abbey, near Soham, Cambridgeshire, where he passed the remainder of his days in farming. Charles II. is said to have visited his house when going from Newmarket to London; and when he heard that Henry was suffering from the stone, he expressed sympathy with him, and, according to one account, even prescribed for him, the king being a dabbler in medicine. It was of this complaint that Henry died. He was buried in Wicken church, and a stone was placed over his remains, with a Latin inscription, stating merely the place of his residence, his age, and the dates of his birth and death. He had 7 children. His last male descendant, and great-grandson, died in 1821, at Cheshunt, aged 79. He had been a solicitor, and was the last representative of the great protector.

CROMWELL, THOMAS, earl of Essex, born toward the close of the 15th century, died July 28, 1540. The exact date of his birth is unknown, though one account says he was born in 1498. His father, one of the Lincolnshire Cromwells, moved to the capital, and had an iron foundery at Putney. The name of his mother is nowhere given, but she is called a gentlewoman by some writers. Cromwell's father died when the future statesman was very young, and the accounts that are given of the orphan's early days are unworthy of confidence. He is said to have been a clerk at Antwerp, and to have been one of a party which went

on a private mission to Rome. The first clear sight of him represents him a ragged youth in the streets of Florence, in 1515, where he attracted the attention of Frescobaldi, then a great banker, and having extensive business connections with England. To his inquiries, Cromwell stated who he was, and that he had been page to a French foot soldier. Frescobaldi took him to his house, relieved his wants, and furnished him with the means of returning home. He found his mother, who had married a second time, again a widow, and he carried on his stepfather's business, that of a clothier. This brought him into connection with the court, as he furnished the royal liveries. He had some employment in the household of the marchioness of Dorset, and finally passed into the service of Wolsey, who saw his talent, and as early as 1525 employed him to visit and break up certain small monasteries, the property of which had been granted by the pope for the foundation of colleges. There is a story that Cromwell was with the army of the constable Bourbon, which took Rome in 1527; but if it has any foundation, he must have been in Italy as an agent of the English government, and not as a military adventurer; for he was with Wolsey not 4 months before Rome was stormed, and again less than a year after that event. Another story is, that he saved the life of Sir John Russell, at Bologna, for which there appears to be some foundation. He remained with Wolsey until the cardinal's ruin, and contended so ably in the house of commons against the bill of impeachment that had been preferred for the completion of the minister's fall, that he caused it to be thrown out. This fidelity to his patron won him great applause, including that of Henry VIII., who could appreciate generosity in others if he could not practise it himself. His talents, too, must have recommended him to the king, who made him his secretary in 1533, and government organ in the house of commons. This necessarily made him the leader of the English reformation, a part for which his early life is supposed to have prepared him. Froude assigns to him the honor of being the only man in England who saw his way distinctly through the chaos of that time, the privilege of genius, that of seeing what other men could not see, being his. He had no party; he was despised and feared by the nobility, who saw in him the friend and pupil of Wolsey, Wolsey's genuine successor in the race for power; while the Protestants could not understand either the character or conduct of the man who was doing their work better than they could do it themselves. But his power rapidly became great, and for several years he was, after the king, the most powerful man in England. In 1531 he was concerned in obtaining from the clergy the enormous sum of £118,000, a fine for their having supported Wolsey's legantine authority. Promotion rapidly followed his entrance into the king's service. He was knighted, sworn of the privy

council, and appointed to several offices. The high posts of secretary of state and master of the rolls soon followed, and he was elected chancellor of the university of Cambridge. In 1535 he was created vicar general, or visitor general, with power to visit all the monasteries in England, and issued a commission for a general visitation of the religious houses, the universities, and other spiritual corporations. He did not become vicegerent in ecclesiastical matters until July, 1536, having just previously been created Baron Cromwell, and lord privy seal. The visitatorial power was executed with great vigor, the other side said with great cruelty and gross injustice. The proceeding was one of the first importance, and struck a deadly blow at the ascendency of Rome in England. The king was satisfied with Cromwell's proceedings, and the work of the reformation was much advanced. Sweeping changes were made in the religious system of England. The articles that were adopted by the convocation of 1536 were not acceptable to either Protestants or Catholics, but government, of which Cromwell was chief minister, was strong enough to enforce them. The complete edition of the English Bible, known as the "Great" or Crumwell," was published 3 years after, with the arms of Cromwell on the title page. The minister, though he was regarded by the nobility with the deepest aversion, as an upstart, was now at the height of his power, which he maintained for some years, continuing to receive rewards and promotion from the king. He was appointed justice of the forests north of the Trent, made a knight of the garter, and elevated to the dignity of lord high chamberlain, receiving_at the same time the title of earl of Essex. He was created constable of Carisbrooke castle, and received the castle and lordship of Okeham, together with valuable estates made up from the possessions of the dissolved monasteries. The reforms he effected were extensive, and in many instances they were useful, and of lasting value; but the readiness with which he accepted so large portions of the spoil that had been created by the success of his policy must ever be a stain on his memory. His appointments and titles, too, gave much offence in influential quarters. One great family was mortally offended by his taking the title of lord high chamberlain, and another by his elevation to the earldom of Essex. The people hated him because of the taxation with which he burdened them. He had enemies on all sides, and friends nowhere. The fluctuations of Henry's mind were such that no reliance could be placed on the royal support, the king sacrificing his instruments with even more than the proverbial readiness of despots. The party hostile to him-headed by the duke of Norfolk and Gardiner, and Catholic in doctrine, but compelled to submit to the new order of things by the iron energy of the king-was continually on the watch to entrap him; and toward the close of his career they had much

encouragement from the king, who is said to have treated his chief minister to harsh words and hard blows. Cromwell daily became more identified with the Protestants, partly from conviction and partly from circumstances; and this must have rendered the king hostile to him, for Henry was to the last a Catholic in all great essentials, and merely wished to be his own pope. It is not probable, therefore, that Cromwell could have much longer maintained his position, even in a contest confined to domestic politics; but an incident bearing upon foreign policy occasioned him to fall rapidly. With the view of connecting England with the Lutherans, he had promoted the marriage of Henry with Anne of Cleves. The lady was very pious, very virtuous, and very unprepossessing. Henry was disgusted with her, and refused to regard her as his wife. An attempt to form an Anglo-German league failed, and Henry was left alone at the very time when Charles V. and Francis I. were drawing together, and the Lutherans were deluded by the emperor. Cromwell continued to protect the Protestants, and only a few days before his fall he sent a Catholic bishop to the tower. On June 10, 1540, he was arrested, on the charge of high treason, while sitting at the council board, and sent to prison. Parliament was in session, and a bill of attainder was soon passed. The only friend Cromwell found was Cranmer, who desired he should be spared. The prisoner made a pathetic appeal to the king, who was moved by it, but would not pardon him. He was beheaded July 28, suffering cruelly at the hands of an unskilful executioner. Government had the baseness to place in his mouth a dying speech that he never made, but which has passed into history, so that he was represented to have died in the faith of that church which he had done so much to overthrow in England. There are few great men of whom so little is accurately known as Thomas Cromwell. He played for 8 years the highest part in England, and in one of the most fruitful of revolutions. He stamped his mind on the English constitution in church and state. That he was guilty of many acts of injustice and cruelty is indisputable, but his memory is entitled to the plea that he was placed in a position where no man could have preserved his virtue. The best account of Cromwell is to be found in Mr. Fronde's 'History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Death of Elizabeth." Cry well was married to a lady of the name of Wiliams, by whom he had one son, Gregory, who was made Baron Cromwell of Okeham, at the same time that his father was created earl of Essex. This son was married to Elizabeth Seymour, a sister of Henry VIII.'s third queen. The posterity of this couple long enjoyed the title of Lord Cromwell.

แ

CRONSTADT, or KRONSTADT, the most important seaport and naval fortress of Russia, the seat of the admiralty, and the station of the

Baltic fleet, is situated in the S. E. part of a small, arid, and rocky island, called Kotlinoi Ostrov (Kettle island), at the E. extremity of the gulf of Finland, opposite the mouth of the Neva, in the government, and 20 m. W. of St. Petersburg; pop. in winter, when the harbor is deserted and ice-bound, about 10,000; in summer, including the garrison, sailors, workmen, and students, sometimes 60,000. The town was built by Peter the Great in 1710, the island having been conquered from the Swedes in 1703 by Mentchikoff, while Charles XII. was engaged in his Polish campaign; it received its name in 1721, was fortified during the same reign, and subsequently under Elizabeth, Catharine II., Paul, Alexander I., and Nicholas, being destined from its foundation to become the great bulwark of the new Russian capital, and a chief naval stronghold of the Baltic. The southern channel, which separates the island from the mainland, is narrow and commanded by a small fortified islet, and allows single vessels only to pass; the opposite channel, the broader, but from its sand banks still less practicable entrance to the shallow eastern bay, called the bay of Cronstadt, is commanded by the batteries of the rock of Riesbank, and the citadel of Kronslott, situated on 2 small islands. Numerous forts and batteries defend all other parts of the island, which forms an irregular triangle, having its base toward St. Petersburg. Near its N. W. point is a lighthouse. The town is regularly built, has fine and well paved streets and squares, 3 gates, 3 Greek churches, 1 Anglican, 1 Lutheran, 1 Roman Catholic, and 2 Greek chapels. Other remarkable buildings are the exchange, custom house, arsenal, admiralty house, cannon foundery, barracks, and magazines; the marine hospital, with 3,000 beds; a house of Peter the Great, now the country residence of the military governor, whose garden still contains a few oaks planted by the hands of that czar; and a palace in the Italian style, erected by Mentchikoff, and now used as a naval school, containing 300 pupils for the navy, and 20 for merchant vessels. The last of these buildings is situated between the 2 canals of St. Peter and Catharine, which intersect the town. The former canal is constructed of granite, and is 2,160 fee.. by 30 yards wide; it is in the form of a cross, and communicates by one of its arms a vast dock, where 10 ships of the line can be repaired at once. The Catharine canal, 24 miles long, communicates with the merchant harbor, thus enabling the merchantmen to take their stores and provisions directly from the warehouses of the town. The quays, constructed by the emperor Nicholas, are all of granite, and on a grand scale. Except the government buildings, about 200 in number, all the older houses of the town are low, and mostly of wood. The harbor of Cronstadt, to the S. of the t Consists of 3 sections: the military, outer

art capable of containing 35 ships of the beside smaller vessels; the middle harbore the fitting out and repairing of vessels,