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the hulls of new ones being brought over for equipment from St. Petersburg; and the innermost harbor, running parallel with the preceding, used only by merehantmen, and sufficient for 1,000 sail at a time. All these are well secured, but in consequence of the freshness of the water from the proximity of the mouth of the Neva, vessels cannot be preserved in them longer than 20 years. From November to the end of April they are blocked by ice. Notwithstanding the shortness of the shipping season, and the shallowness of the bay, which at the bar is only 9 feet deep, of the foreign trade of Russia passes through this port. Entrances in 1856, 3,432 vessels, tonnage 547,951; clearances, 3,028 vessels, tonnage 469,812. In summer the surrounding sea is enlivened by steamers regularly running between Cronstadt and St. Petersburg, Helsingfors, Stockholm, Stettin, Lübeck, Havre, &c. Cronstadt was inundated in 1824, and blockaded in 1854 by the British fleet under Napier. CRONSTADT, or KRONSTADT (Hung. Brassó), capital of a district of the same name, in the Austrian crownland of Transylvania. The district lies N. of the Carpathian mountains, an arm of which traverses it, and is watered by the Aluta and its tributary, the Burze, which gives it also the name of Burzenland. The soil is well cultivated, and produces all sorts of grain and pulse. It has gold, silver, and lead, and various mineral springs. The country abounds in game, fish, and bees, in horned cattle and pine timber. The population, about 100,000, is mainly composed of descendants of German settlers, of Wallachians, Hungarians, Greeks, and Armenians.-The town, pop. about 36,000, is beautifully situated in a narrow valley, enclosed by mountains. Charming villas on the slopes, with here and there an old castle on the heights, give a varied and picturesque aspect to the surrounding scenery. It consists of an inner town, which is surrounded by a wall and entered by 5 gates, and 3 suburbs, of which one, called the upper town or Bolgár, extends into the mountain passes, winds up the slopes, covering them with beautiful country mansions and well kept gardens and orchards, and is the favorite residence of the wealthy Wallachians. The 6 principal streets of the inner town are well paved and clean; the houses generally well built. It has a large market place, with 2 fountains, and at the main gate an esplanade covered with avenues of shady trees. The Protestant gymnasium, with a good library, the Roman Catholic high school, and the military hospital, deserve attention. There is a considerable trade in cattle, wine, corn, salt, and manufactured goods. The foundation of Cronstadt is traced back to the 13th century. In the 16th it was the starting point of the reformation in Transylvania, which was promoted by Honterus, a disciple of Melanchthon, who is said to have been in intimate correspondence with Luther, and to have also established the earliest printing press here (1533), its first productions being the Augsburg Confession and Luther's writings. Here,

too, the first paper mill was erected. Cronstadt was formerly surrounded by strong fortifications, which are now in ruins. North-east of the town is a small citadel, situated on the summit of an isolated hill, which was not without importance in the Hungarian war of 1848-'49. CROOKS, GEORGE R., D.D., an American clergyman and lexicographer, born in Philadelphia, Feb. 3, 1822. He was graduated at Dickinson college in 1840, and entered the ministry of the Methodist Episcopal church in 1841. His field of labor embraced portions of Fulton, Knox, and Peoria counties, in Illinois, his regular work being to preach 30 sermons every 4 weeks, beside having the pastoral oversight of a large territory. In 1842 he was elected classical and mathematical tutor in Dickinson college, and in 1843 he succeeded the Rev. L. Scott (now bishop) as principal of the grammar school of the college, and became associated with Professor McClintock in preparing "A First Book in Latin," and "A First Book in Greek," both of which have met with popular favor as text books. In 1846 he was elected adjunct professor of ancient languages, which position he held until 1848, when he resumed the pastoral office. He has had charge of prominent churches in Philadelphia, Wilmington, and New York, and as a preacher holds a place in the front rank of the profession. He has published an edition of Butler's "Analogy," containing a complete analysis of that work, with a new life of Bishop Butler, together with copious notes and an index. His last and most important work is a new LatinEnglish lexicon, adapted to schools and colleges, prepared in conjunction with Prof. Schem, of Dickinson college.

CROPSEY, JASPER FRANK, an American artist, born at Westfield, Richmond co., N. Y., Feb. 18, 1823. About the age of 14 he commenced the study of architecture, which, at the end of 5 years, he was obliged to relinquish on account of ill health. Having received a few lessons in water colors, he devoted himself thenceforth to landscape painting, and his third picture, a view of Greenwood lake in New Jersey, procured his election as an associate of the American academy of design, of which in 1850 he became a full member. In 1847 ill health compelled him to visit Europe, where he spent 3 years in close study of his art. Among his most successful productions after his return to America were the "Sibyl's Temple," and "American Harvesting," engraved by the American art union; "Peace" and "War," and "Niagara Falls." In June, 1856, he embarked for England, where he has since resided. Among his latest works are a series of American scenes, which are to be executed in chromo-lithography; several designs for illustrated books of poems; and compositions entitled "The Olden Time-A Tournament, and Return from Hawking." His subjects are chiefly landscapes, to which allegory and history are sometimes made accessory.

CROSLAND, MRS. NEWTON, better known by her maiden name of CAMILLA TOULMIN, an English authoress, born in London about 1817. Her father, a solicitor, died when she was a child, leaving the family mainly dependent upon the exertions of his son, who had also been trained to the law. Upon the death of the latter, Miss Toulmin, who had early manifested literary tastes and abilities, was forced to look to her pen for the means of support. She first appeared in print in 1838 as the authoress of a short poem in the "Book of Beanty," soon after which she became an active contributor to "Chambers's Magazine," the "People's Journal," and other periodicals, and edited for several years the "Ladies' Companion and Monthly Magazine." She has also published a volume of poems, "Lays and Legends illustrative of English Life," ,""Partners for Life, a Christmas Story," "Stratagems, a Tale for Young People," and a number of other works of fiction, designed to promote the moral and social culture of the people. She was one of the earliest to write for this end, and is regarded as a pioneer in the cause. In 1848 she was married to Mr. Newton Crosland, a merchant of London, in the environs of which she resides. She has recently become a convert to the doctrines of "Spiritualism," and has published a work illustrated with drawings by alleged spiritual agency. CROSS (Lat. crux, Fr. croix), an ancient instrument of torture and death, commonly formed of two beams crossing each other. There were various forms of the cross: the crux commissa consisted of a transverse beam placed on the top of a perpendicular one, Îike our letter T; the crux immissa or capitata was a transverse beam crossing a perpendicular one at some distance from the top; and the crux decussata, or St. Andrew's cross, was made like the letter X. The Greek cross is a form of the crux immissa, the 2 beams crossing each other in the middle so that the 4 arms shall be of equal length. All these are varieties of the compound cross, beside which there was the simple cross consisting of a single stake on which the criminal was fastened or impaled. The shape of the cross on which our Saviour suffered is not known, for the historians who record its discovery give no description of it. It was probably the crux immissa, and such indeed is it commonly represented on ancient coins. A piece of wood bearing an inscription was placed on or above it, and there is reason to suppose that the feet of our Saviour were partly supported by a block placed beneath them, and to which they were nailed. Beside this, there was often a small resting place on which the body could slightly sustain itself as on a seat. The church early learned to regard the cross as an emblem no longer of disgrace but of victory. It became the favorite symbol of Christianity; it was fashioned in wood, stone, and metal; it was placed on tombs, altars, and religious structures, and sometimes on the front of private dwellings; and

the faithful, not content with beholding its visible image, marked it with the hand on their persons. The sign of the cross was introduced into the ritual, and used in baptism, confirmation, and the Lord's supper. The Catholic church employs it in all sacred rites; it is the customary mode of benediction; it is many times repeated in the mass, and none of her sacraments can be rightfully administered without it. Roman Catholic bishops, abbots, and abbesses wear the cross suspended over the breast; and most of the priestly vestments display it embroidered in various forms. From the catacombs we have many curious examples of symbolical crosses, surrounded by other emblems, one of the commonest of which is a fish, denoting the water of baptism, or the "fishers of men;" or because the Greek word xvs, a fish, comprises the initial letters of the Greek for "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour." The dove, the serpent, A and 2, were sometimes added to such representations, and often the cross was interwoven with the Greek letters X and P, the first two of the word XptoTos, or with a circle, the emblem of eternity. The latter is the sacred tau or crux ansata. The famous labarum or imperial standard of Constantine bore an image of the flaming cross which appeared to him in the heavens, and displayed the motto: Ev rovт vika, “By this conquer." From that time the sign of salvation glittered on the shields and banners of the Roman armies. Christian churches were soon built in the shape of a cross; and with the supposed discovery by the empress Helena, mother of Constantine, of the identical wood upon which Christ suffered, the veneration of the faithful took a new form. In 326 Helena, as related by Socrates, Sozomen, Rufinus, and Theodoret, visited the scenes of our Lord's sufferings. Every trace of the great events which had hallowed the environs of Jerusalem had been obliterated by the heathen, and a temple to Venus stood over Mount Calvary; but from a Jew who had treasured up what traditions he could gather, the empress learned the probable place of Christ's burial. The spot being excavated, 3 crosses were found, and the title which that of Jesus bore was discovered lying by itself. It is related that the cross of Christ was distinguished from the other two by miraculous cures wrought by touching it. A church was built over the spot; a part of the sacred relic was deposited in it; a part was sent to Rome and placed in the church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, built expressly to receive it; and the rest was inserted by Constantine in the head of a statue of himself at Constantinople. The first was carried away from Jerusalem by Chosroes, king of Persia, in 614, but was afterward recovered by the Roman emperor Heraclius, who restored it to its former place in 629. In the old chronicle of Geoffrey de Vinsauf, called the "Itinerary of Richard I.," we are told how the crusaders bore it with them to battle, how it was taken from them by Saladin at the battle of Hattin in 1187, and how the

pilgrims who went to the holy city in 1192 during the 3 years' truce were allowed "to see and kiss the true cross of our Lord." A piece of it is shown at Rome; another was preserved in Poland till the 17th century, when it was presented by John Casimir to the princess palatine, Anna Gonzaga, who bequeathed it to the monks of St. Germain in Paris; and innumerable minute fragments are held by Catholics throughout the world. A festival in honor of the finding or "invention" of the cross is still celebrated May 3, and the feast of the "exaltation of the cross," in commemoration of its restoration by Heraclius, is kept Sept. 14. The latter, however, according to some authorities, was instituted in the Greek church in honor of the appearance of the cross to Constantine. The ceremony of the "adoration (or more properly kissing) of the cross," which takes place in all Catholic churches on Good Friday, consists in presenting the feet of a crucifix to the lips of the people.-Architectural crosses were of several kinds, the principal being boundary, market, preaching, and memorial crosses. The first not only defined civil and ecclesiastical limits, but were sometimes endowed with the privilege of sanctuary. Market crosses were built partly to afford shelter in wet weather, and partly in token of the rights of neighboring monasteries to which belonged the tolls of the market. They are to be seen in many parts of England. At preaching crosses, sermons were delivered and proclamations were read. Memorial crosses marked the scenes of battles, murders, and other events, or in Alpine regions still denote the most dangerous parts of the mountain roads. Fifteen beautiful memorial crosses were built by Edward I. at the places where the body of his queen Eleanor rested during its removal from Grantham to Westminster. The processional cross, carried at the head of solemn processions, is often highly ornamented. There are many examples of the use of the cross as a sacred emblem among pagan nations, the earliest being found in Egypt and India. It is claimed that some have even been noticed in America.

CROSS, JOSEPH, D.D., a Methodist clergyman, born in Somersetshire, England, in 1813. He came to the United States at the age of 12, and entered upon the ministry in Genesee, N. Y., at the age of 16. He was for some time connected with the Transylvania university at Lexington, Ky., as professor of English literature, and has occupied some of the most important stations in the Methodist Episcopal church south. In 1855-'6 he travelled extensively in Europe, and wrote letters which were published extensively in the southern journals. He was a member of the general conference of the M. E. church south, which held its session in Nashville, Tenn., in 1856, and was the official reporter of that body. He has published "Pisgah Views of the Promised Inheritance, ""Headlands of Faith," "A Year in Europe," "Life and Sermons of Christmas Evans, VOL. VI.-7

from the Welsh," and "Prelections on Charity." He is at present the principal of a female seminary at Spartanburg, S. C.

CROSSBILL, a bird belonging to the order passeres, tribe conirostres, family fringillida, and genus loxia (Linn.). The bill in this genus is moderate, broad at the base, with the culmen much curved, and the sides compressed to the very acute tip; the mandibles cross each other, having their lateral margins bent inward; the wings are moderate, the tail short and emarginated; the tarsi short, robust, and feathered below the knee; toes short, hind one with its claw very long, claws curved and sharp. These birds are found in the northern parts of both hemispheres, occurring in flocks in the forests of pines and firs, the seeds of which they eat; by means of the powerful bill and its peculiar construction, they pry asunder the scales of the cones; they also do much mischief in orchards by tearing open apples and pears in order to get the pips. The European species is the L. curvirostra (Linn.). The American crossbill is the L. Americana (Wils.). The length of the latter is 7 inches, and extent of wings 10 inches; the bill is brown, lighter on the edges, darker at the tip; iris hazel; general color a dull light red, inclining to vermilion, darker on the wings; quills and tail brownish black; the abdomen paler red, passing into whitish. The young males have tints of yellow and green, mixed with brown; in the female the upper parts are grayish brown, tinged with green, and the rump grayish yellow, as are also the lower parts. They are found in Maine and Canada even in midwinter, and on the shores of Lake Superior are seen in large flocks in the coldest weather, about the mining locations; they are also met with as far south as Pennsylvania. They fly quickly in an undulating manner, making considerable noise; they are easily domesticated, and in their wild state seem not to fear man. The eggs are 4 or 5, of a greenish white color, thickly covered, especially at the large end, with dark brown spots. The white-winged species (L. leucop tera, Gmel.) also inhabits the northern pine and spruce forests, the whole breadth of the continent, probably up to 68° N., where the woods terminate; it only resorts to temperate climates when forced by severe weather. The principal difference consists in the more slender bill, and in 2 white bands on the wings, formed by the secondary and first row of small coverts; the habits of the 2 species are the same. The singular form of the bill in this genus is a striking example of the adaptation of means to ends, which everywhere meets the student of natural history.

CROSSBOW. See ARBALAST and ARCHERY. CROSSE, ANDREW, an English electrician, born in Bromfield, Somersetshire, June 17, 1784, died July 6, 1855. He was matriculated at Brazenose college, Oxford, in 1802, but in 1805 returned to settle on his estate of Fyne Court, which he had some years previously inherited

from his father, and where he passed the greater part of his life. Having a strong predilection for the study of electricity, he provided himself with the necessary apparatus, and pursued his experiments without regard to theories. One of his first discoveries was the production of crystals by the effect of electricity. By the action of the voltaic battery, excited by water alone, upon a tumbler of water taken from a cavern in the neighborhood lined with aragonite crystallizations, he procured in a few days crystals of carbonate of lime. For 30 years he prosecuted these experiments, and succeeded in obtaining 41 mineral crystals, or minerals uncrystallized, in the form in which they are produced by nature, including one, subsulphate of copper, entirely new. He was of the opinion that it was possible to form diamonds in this way. As he worked alone and never published the results of his discoveries, they were unknown to the scientific world until the meeting of the British association for the advancement of science in Bristol in 1836, when he was induced to explain them publicly. The announcement excited unusual interest, and Mr. Crosse was publicly complimented by the president, the marquis of Northampton, and by Dr. Buckland, Dr. Dalton, Prof. Sedgwick, and other eminent scientific men. For many years previous he had been in the habit of employing the electrical fluid for ascertaining the state of the atmosphere and for other purposes, and had constructed a mile or more of insulated wire above the tree tops in the neighborhood of his house to aid his experiments. In 1816 he predicted, at a meeting of country gentlemen," that by means of electrical agency we shall be able to communicate our thoughts instantaneously with the uttermost ends of the earth," although it does not appear that he ever attempted to fulfil his prediction. The discovery, however, with which his name is chiefly connected, is that of the apparent production of insects by the action of the voltaic battery upon certain chemical fluids. In 1836, while pursuing his experiments in crystallization with a highly caustic solution, out of contact with atmospheric air, he noticed the appearance of an insect of the acarus tribe, of which upward of 100 more were formed within a few weeks. The discovery caused a considerable sensation, and although Mr. Faraday and Mr. Weeks of Sandwich amply confirmed the statements of Mr. Crosse by their own experience, the latter was accused of the impiety of assuming to become a creator. Crosse, who was a man of sincere religious convictions, was much affected by these imputations, although he could give no explanation of the manner in which the insects were produced. In answer to a person who had attacked him with unusual virulence, he said that he was sorry if the faith of his neighbors depended upon the claw of a mite. Recent experiments on the same subject by Prof. Schulze of Germany failed to obtain the appearance of insects or animal germs, thus confirming the probability

which Mr. Crosse never disputed that the ova of the insects were derived from the atmosphere, or conveyed into the apparatus by some natural means unknown to the experimenter. Among the practical benefits of his experiments was the discovery of a process for purifying salt water by means of electricity. He also made some curious discoveries with reference to the effects of positive and negative electricity upon vegetation. He was a benevolent man, an active magistrate, and a useful friend to the poor. A memoir, including many original poems written by him, was published after his death by his widow.

CROSWELL, EDWIN, an American journalist and politician, nephew of the succeeding, born in the village of Catskill, N. Y., about 1795. Upon the completion of his education, he became an assistant editor of the "Catskill Recorder," a journal established in Catskill in 1790 by his father and uncles. The first article which he wrote for the press was a vindication of the drafted soldiery of the state who had been called out for the defence of New York, in the last war with Great Britain. His political affinities were with the party who advocated the war, and after the retirement of his father, his management of the paper was such as to attract the attention of public men prominent in the political history of the state. In 1823-24, upon the death of Judge Cantine, printer to the state and editor of the "Albany Argus," he was invited by Mr. Martin Van Buren, Mr. Benjamin F. Butler, and others, to assume the control of that paper. Thenceforward he became a resident of Albany, and was closely identified with the growth and prosperity of the "Argus," and with some of the most important political movements of the time. He converted the "Argus" from a semi-weekly into a daily journal, increased its circulation very largely, and made it one of the chief organs of the democratic party, not merely in the state, but in the country. The organization of the party was at that time as perfect as political sagacity could make it, and to Mr. Croswell, as a member of the so-called "Albany regency," a group of politicians who directed the councils of the party in the state of New York, was assigned the delicate task of composing, through the columns of the "Argus," all intestine difficulties, and preserving order in the ranks. To the tact with which he discharged this duty has been ascribed, in no inconsiderable degree, the ascendency which the democratic party long maintained in the state. The minor party presses habitually copied the leading articles of the "Argus," as the embodiment of the soundest democratic principles; and so potent was the influence of Mr. Croswell's name and of his paper, that for many years to discredit the authority of the " Argus was equivalent to a renunciation of party ties. In 1840, Mr. Croswell was succeeded as state printer, a position he had held for the previous 17 years, by Mr. Thurlow Weed, editor of the " Albany

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Evening Journal." In 1844 Mr. Croswell was reinstated for a period of 3 years. Various changes had meanwhile affected the harmonious action of the party which he had so long promoted, and he found himself opposed to some of his earliest political associates, among others to Mr. Van Buren. The "Argus," how ever, continued to be one of the principal organs of the democratic party, and Mr. Croswell invariably supported its candidates for national offices. In the more difficult matter of state politics, his influence has necessarily been of less weight than formerly. In 1854 he retired from the "Argus" and from all connection with the newspaper press, after an eventful editorial life of about 40 years. His pen has occasionally been employed on addresses and other literary productions not of a professional character, and he is said to be preparing for publication his personal reminiscences of the men and events of his time.

CROSWELL, HARRY, D. D., an American journalist and clergyman, born at West Hartford, Conn., June 16, 1778, died at New Haven, March 13, 1858. He was first publicly known as the editor of the " Balance," a journal founded by him in 1802 at Hudson, N. Y., in which he was associated with Ezra Sampson, by education a Presbyterian clergyman. Mr. Croswell, who was a federalist, wrote in the then prevailing spirit of bitterness, and became involved in many libel suits and prosecutions, celebrated at the time. In one of these, for an article on Jefferson, published in the "Wasp," a journal under his direction, Alexander Hamilton made his last forensic effort in his defence. Mr. Croswell afterward removed to Albany, and established a federal paper; but turning his attention to theology, he retired from journalism and took orders in the Episcopal church in 1814. He became rector of Trinity church, in New Haven, Feb. 22, 1816, and was in the latter part of his life almost as remarkable for the dignity and gravity of his deportment as he had been in his earlier career for its impetuosity. He was the author of several devotional works, and a memoir of his son, the Rev. William Croswell, D. D.-WILLIAM, D. D., son of the preceding, born at Hudson, N. Y., Nov. 7, 1804, died in Boston, Nov. 9, 1851. He was graduated at Yale college in 1822, and took orders in the Protestant Episcopal church in 1828. In 1829 he became rector of Christ church, Boston, in 1840 of St. Peter's, at Auburn, N. Y., and in 1844 returned to Boston to assume the charge of the church of the Advent, whose services he directed in conformity with the ancient rubrics rather than the practice of other churches or the sentiments of his ecclesiastical superiors. His views in regard to the external arrangements of the church led to a controversy with Bishop Eastburn, by whom he was officially censured; but his church prospered none the less, for the life of the pastor was a beautiful example of self-deny

ing charity and religious devotion. He became suddenly ill while conducting divine service in his church on Sunday afternoon, and lived but a short time after being removed to his residence. His poems are mostly short lyrical pieces, in commemoration of the observances and memorial seasons of the church to which he was devoted.

CROTCH, WILLIAM, an English composer, born at Norwich in 1775, died at Taunton, Dec. 29, 1847. When scarcely 2 years of age he could play tunes on the harpsichord, and a year later was able to add a bass. This precocity attracted the attention of Dr. Burney and other distinguished musicians, but the expectations excited by it were never fulfilled. Crotch became an accomplished musician, but his compositions, of which he published a great number, have no special merit. He was made a doctor of music by the university of Oxford, in which he also filled the chair of professor of music.

CROTON, a river of the state of New York, flowing through Dutchess, Putnam, and Westchester counties, and entering the Hudson river about 35 m. above New York city. From this stream the city of New York is supplied with water through the Croton aqueduct; for a description of which, see AQUEDUCT.

CROTON OIL is expressed from the seeds of the croton tiglium, a native of Ceylon, Molucca, Hindostan, and of other parts of Asia. These seeds are rather larger than a common pea, of an ovate form, and of a brownish color. The kernels contain about 50 per cent. of oil, which is of a pale yellow color. It has a slight odor, and a bitter, burning taste. It is a speedy and powerful purgative, and acts with good effect upon the patient when taken in small doses. Taken in large quantities, it produces vomiting and great pain, and is sometimes fatal in its effects. It has been long used in India, and was known in Europe as early as 1630, but attracted little notice. It was introduced into England in 1820, but does not yet receive the attention which it deserves. In cases of constipation, where all other medicines fail, it has proved highly beneficial. It is also employed in dropsy, apoplexy, and in almost all diseases in which the patient has a tendency to torpor. Externally applied, it is found advantageous in cases of gout, rheumatism, neuralgia, glandular swellings, and in pulmonary complaints. Thus applied, it produces inflammation of the skin, with pustular eruptions. The oil is sometimes incorporated with the lead plaster, melting at a gentle heat 3 parts of the latter with I of oil. Much of the croton oil imported to this country is not genuine, being procured from plants different from the C. tiglium.

CROTONA, or CROTON, an ancient Greek colony in southern Italy. The city stood near the mouth of the river Esarus, on the E. coast of the Bruttian peninsula. It was founded by a body of Achæans and Spartans, probably about 710 B. C., and soon became distin

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