Hague of 1899. This Conference produces, apart from three declarations of minor importance, a Convention for the Pacific Settlement of International Conflicts, a Convention regarding the Laws and Customs of War on Land, and a Convention for the Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of the Principles of the Geneva Convention. It also formulates, among others, the three wishes (1) that a Conference should in the near future regulate the rights and duties of neutrals; (2) that a future Conference should contemplate a declaration of the inviolability of private property in naval warfare; (3) that a future Conference should settle the question of the bombardment of ports, towns, and villages by naval forces.

period

§ 50. Soon after the Hague Peace Conference, in The October 1899, war breaks out in South Africa between 1899Great Britain and the two Boer Republics, which 1914. leads to their subjugation at the end of 1901. The assassination on June 10, 1900, of the German Minister and the general attack on the foreign legations at Peking necessitate united action of the Powers against China for the purpose of vindicating this violation of the fundamental rules of the Law of Nations. Friendly relations are, however, re-established with China on her submitting to the conditions enumerated in the Final Protocol of Peking,1 signed on September 7, 1901. In December 1902, Great Britain, Germany and Italy institute a blockade of the coast of Venezuela for the purpose of making her comply with their demands for the indemnification of their subjects wronged during civil wars in Venezuela, and the latter consents to pay indemnities to be settled by a mixed commission of diplomatists.2 As, however, Powers other than those blockading likewise claim indemnities, the matter is

1 See Martens, N. R. G.,[2nd Ser. xxxii. p. 94.

2 See Martens, N.R.G., 3rd Ser. i. p. 46.

referred to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague, which in 1904 gives its award 1 in favour of the blockading Powers. In February 1904 war breaks out between Japan and Russia 2 on account of Manchuria and Korea. Russia is defeated, and peace is concluded through the mediation of the United States of America, on September 5, 1905, at Portsmouth.3 Korea, now freed from the influence of Russia, places herself by the Treaty of Seoul of November 17, 1905, under the protectorate of Japan. Five years later, however, by the Treaty of Seoul 5 of August 22, 1910, she merges entirely into Japan.

The Real Union between Norway and Sweden, which was established by the Vienna Congress in 1815, is peace fully dissolved by the Treaty of Stockholm (Karlstad) of October 26, 1905. Norway becomes a separate Kingdom under Prince Charles of Denmark, who take the name of Haakon VII., and Great Britain, Germany Russia, and France guarantee by the Treaty of Chris tiania of November 2, 1907, the integrity of Norway on condition that she would not cede any part of he territory to any foreign Power.

The rivalry between France and Germany-the latte protesting against the position conceded to France i Morocco by the Anglo-French agreement signed a London on April 8, 1904-leads in January 1906 to th Conference of Algeciras, in which Great Britain, France Germany, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Austria-Hungary Portugal, Russia, Sweden, Spain, and the United State of America take part, and where, on April 7, 1906, th

General Act of the International Conference of Algeciras 1 is signed. This Act, which recognises, on the one hand, the independence and integrity of Morocco, and, on the other, equal commercial facilities for all nations in that country, contains: (1) a declaration concerning the organisation of the Moroccan police; (2) regulations concerning the detection and suppression of the illicit trade in arms; (3) an Act of concession for a Moroccan State Bank; (4) a declaration concerning an improved yield of the taxes and the creation of new sources of revenue; (5) regulations respecting customs and the suppression of fraud and smuggling; (6) a declaration concerning the public services and public works. But this Act does not produce a condition of affairs of any permanency. Since, in 1911, internal disturbances in Morocco lead to military action on the part of France and Spain, Germany, in July of the same year, sends a man-of-war to the port of Agadir. As the Moroccan question has been reopened, fresh negotiations for its settlement take place, and on November 4, 1911, France and Germany sign two treaties,2 by which a French protectorate of Morocco is recognised, and as a quid pro quo France cedes a part of her Congo territory to Germany.

On December 13, 1906, Great Britain, France, and Italy sign the Treaty of London,3 by which they agree to co-operate in maintaining the independence and integrity of Abyssinia.

On August 18, 1907, Great Britain and Russia sign the Treaty of St. Petersburg, concerning Persia, Afghanistan, and Thibet. The integrity and independence of Persia and of Afghanistan, and the protectorate

of China over Thibet are recognised, and arrangements are made concerning economic conditions in these countries.

Two events of importance occur in 1908. The first is the merging of the Congo Free State 1 into Belgium. The other is the crisis in the Near East caused by the ascendency of the so-called Young Turks and the introduction of a constitution in Turkey. Simultaneously, on October 5, 1908, Bulgaria declares herself independent, and Austria-Hungary proclaims her sovereignty over Bosnia and Herzegovina, two Turkish provinces which had been under her administration since 1878. This violation of the Treaty of Berlin considerably endangers the peace of the world, and an international conference is proposed for the purpose of reconsidering the settlement of the Near Eastern question. Austria-Hungary, however, does not consent to this, but prefers to negotiate with Turkey alone in the matter, and a Protocol 2 is signed by the two Powers on February 26, 1909, according to which Turkey receives a substantial indemnity in money and other concessions. AustriaHungary negotiates likewise with Montenegro alone, and consents to the modifications in Article 29 of the Treaty of Berlin concerning the harbour of Antivary, which is to be freed from Austro-Hungarian control, and is henceforth to be open to warships of all nations. Whereupon the demand for an international conference is abandoned, and the Powers notify,3 on April 7, 1909, their consent to the abolition of Article 25 and the amendment of Article 29 of the Treaty of Berlin.

In 1910 Portugal becomes a Republic; but the Powers, although they enter provisionally into communication with the de facto Government, do not recog

1 See Martens, N.R.G., 3rd Ser. ii. p. 101.

2 See Martens, N. R. G., 3rd Ser. ii p. 661.

3 See Martens, N.R.G., 3rd Ser. iv. p. 31; Blociszewski in R. G., xvii. (1910), pp. 417-449; and Krunski, L'Annexion de la Bosnie et de l'Herzégovine en 1908 (1912).

nise the Republic until September 1911, after the National Assembly has adopted the republican form of government.

In September 1911 war breaks out between Italy and Turkey, on account of the alleged maltreatment of Italian subjects in Tripoli. Turkey is defeated, and cedes by the Peace Treaty of Lausanne 1 of October 18, 1912, Tripoli and Cyrenaica to Italy. But before this treaty is signed, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia declare war against Turkey, and the war comes to an end by the Peace Treaty of London 2 of May 17, 1913, by which Turkey cedes the greater part of her European territory to her adversaries, and the island of Crete to Greece. The fate of the Turkish islands in the Ægean Sea is to be settled by the six Great Powers of Europe, and Albania is constituted an independent State. However, even before this treaty is ratified, war breaks out between Bulgaria on the one hand, and Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Roumania on the other. Turkey likewise makes war on Bulgaria. The latter is defeated, and peace is concluded at Bucharest on July 28, 1913, and at Constantinople on September 16, 1913.3

In 1914 the United States intervenes in Mexico. American forces occupy Vera Cruz, but withdraw on November 23.4

International Law as a body of rules for the international conduct of States makes steady progress during this period. This is evidenced by congresses, conferences, and law-making treaties. Of conferences and

1 See Martens, N.R.G., 3rd Ser. vii. p. 7, and Barclay, The TurcoItalian War and its Problems (1912); Baspisardi-Mirabelli in R.I., 2nd Ser. xiv. (1912), pp. 159-186, 411-448; xv. (1913), pp. 85-138, 523-584, 649-672. See Martens, N.R.G., 3rd Ser. viii. p. 16.

* See Martens, N.R.G., 3rd Ser. viii. pp. 61 and 78.

A.J., x. (1916), p. 357. In 1915

the United States recognises the Government of Carranza as the de facto Government of Mexico. In March 1916 American forces again enter Mexico, in agreement with the Carranza Government; they are, however, withdrawn in January 1917. See A.J., xi. (1917), pp. 399-406. In May 1920, as this volume goes to press, revolution breaks out in Mexico.