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the Constitution, these express guaranties were unneces sary, and were added mainly to prevent misconstruction or abuse of constitutional powers. They are contained in the first ten articles of amendment.

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Among the leading Federalists of that day, were Gen. Washington, James Madison, and John Marshall, of Va. Rufus King and John Adams, of Mass.; Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, of N. Y.; Gouverneur Morris, of Pa.; Charles Pinckney and Charles C. Pinckney, of S. C; all of whom, except Marshall, Adams and Jay, had been members of the Convention. [Mr. King subsequently became a citizen of the State of New York.]

Notwithstanding the division of sentiment which has been noticed, there were not as yet, nor for many years afterwards, distinct, organized political parties. And General Washington, though acting with the friends of the Constitution in the Convention, was elected President without opposition. The leading measures of his administration, however, met with a strong opposition from those who were opposed to the Federalists.

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The 1st Congress met in New York on the 4th of March, 1789; but a quorum of both Houses did not attend until the 6th of March. On counting the electoral votes, it appeared that Gen. Washington was unanimously elected President, and that John Adams was, by the next highest number of votes, elected Vice-President. On the 30th of April, the President took the oath of office.

Great public rejoicings had taken place on the adoption of the Constitution by mechanics and manufacturers in sundry places, because Congress had now the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations by protecting du ties. Scarcely had Congress commenced its deliberations, before petitions were received from Baltimore, Charleston, New York, Boston, and other places, for the exercise of this power for the encouragement of domestic manufactures. When the first of these petitions was received, Mr. Madison had already brought forward the subject of the revenue system; and the first act passed by Congress, excepting only the law prescribing the oaths of office, was an act, the objects of which were declared in the preamble to be, "the support of the Government, the discharge of the debts of

the United States, and the encouragement and protection of domestic manufactures, by duties on goods, wares, and merchandises imported." By this act, discriminating duties were laid upon both foreign goods and foreign vessels.

At this session the auxiliary Executive Departments. were reörganized and adapted to the new Government. The question arose, whether the concurrence of the Senate was necessary in the removal of officers as in their appointment. The opinion of the writers of the Federalist was, that the consent of the Senate would be necessary “to displace as well as to appoint." This construction was supported by Mr. Sherman and Mr Gerry, who had been members of the Constitutional Convention, and opposed by Mr. Madison and Mr. Baldwin, who also had been members of the Convention. The latter view prevailed by a vote of

34 to 20.

Mr. Jefferson was appointed Secretary of State ; Mr. Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; Gen. Knox of Mass., Secretary of War; and Edmund Randolph, AttorneyGeneral.

The Judiciary Department also was established at this session.

Congress, having adjourned on the 29th of September, to meet again on the 1st Monday of January, 1790, met accordingly. Among the objects recommended by the President, were those of "promoting manufactures," and making "adequate provision for the support of the public credit." The latter was the great measure of the session. The Secretary of the Treasury, having been directed at the preceding session to prepare a plan, reported one accordingly.

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The public credit had become so depressed, that Government paper had been sold for one-sixth to one-eighth of its nominal value. Issues of this "Continental money," as it was called, having been made to the amount of nearly 300 millions of dollars, it was not an easy task to maintain the honor and retrieve the credit of the nation, and do perfect justice to all the public creditors.

The Secretary recommended that the foreign debt should be fully paid; and in respect to the domestic debt, that no discrimination should be made between original holders of

the public securities and present possessors by purchase; nor between creditors of the Union and those of the States. As the chief part of the debts of the States had been contracted on account of the Union, the same ought to be assumed by the Union. And he recommended that the debt be funded. The provision of a permanent fund for its payment would establish the public credit, and enable the Government, in any emergency, to procure means to supply the public necessity. It would prevent the fluctuation and insecurity of an unfunded debt. The debt properly funded would serve most purposes of money; and the capital thus created "would invigorate all the operations of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce."

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In the measures of finance founded on this Report, originated the first regular and systematic opposition to Washington's administration. Mr. Madison, who, in convention, and for some time afterward, had been one of those called Federalists," now joined the opposition. Some were opposed to funding systems generally. But the assumption of the State debts was a special object of denunciation. Such was the opposition to the financial measures generally, that resolutions denouncing them were passed by the Legislatures of Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and North Carolina. The plan of the Secretary was in the main adopted. Of the debts of the States, estimated at about $25,000,000, the sum of $21,500,000 was assumed in specific sums from the several States.

The opposition to these measures was to some extent increased by an act passed at the next session, (1790-1791,) in conformity to a report of the Secretary, recommending an increase of duties on imported wines, spirits, tea and coffee, and a duty on home distilled spirits. The proposed duty on domestic distilled spirits was vehemently opposed, especially by Southern and Western members, the population in that section being to a less extent the consumers of foreign goods.

It was this tax on domestic spirits which caused what was called the "Whisky insurrection," in Western Pennsylvania. An organized opposition to the law having been formed, Congress passed an act authorizing the President to call out the militia to aid in enforcing the laws.

The

insurrection having at length assumed an alarming aspect, the President, in the summer of 1794, ordered a military force to be raised of 15,000 men, by which the insurrection was quelled, almost without bloodshed.

But the most prominent financial measure of the session at which this tax law was enacted, (1790-1791,) was the establishment of a National Bank. This, too, had been recommended by the Secretary of the Treasury, and supported by various arguments. The Bank bill was opposed by the same party as that which had opposed other measures of the administration. Its leading opponent was Mr. Madison. The bill passed the House, 39 to 20. All who voted against the bill, except one, were from the States of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. All present from the other States, except one from Massachusetts, voted in the affirmative, with two from Maryland, two from North Carolina, and one from South Carolina. The President obtained the written opinions of the members of his Cabinet as to the constitutionality of the bill. They were equally divided, Hamilton and Knox affirming its constitutionality, and Jefferson and Randolph being of the contrary opinion. After mature deliberation, the President signed the bill.

Washington's foreign policy encountered scarcely less opposition than his domestic. The revolution in France, which commenced about the time when our Government under the Constitution was organized, was followed by a general war in Europe. Several European Powers had combined against France; and the latter had made a formal declaration of war against Great Britain and Holland. It now became a question, What course should the United States pursue towards the new Government of France? During our Revolution, an alliance had been formed with that nation, which had rendered us aid in our contest with Great Britain; and a large portion of the American people were now disposed to reciprocate the favor.

The President, though sympathizing with France, desired to maintain a neutral position, provided it should be determined that such a course was consistent with our treaties with that country. He therefore submitted a series of questions to the Cabinet, then consisting of four members.

One of these questions was, Shall a proclamation be issued enjoining non-interference by our citizens in the war between Great Britain and France? Another, Shall a minister from the French Republic be received? The members were unanimous in favor of a proclamation of neutrality, and of receiving a Minister. The Secretaries of the Treasury and of War, (Hamilton and Knox,) however, advised the reception of a Minister with a qualification; it being doubtful whether the new Government of France had been established by the general consent of the nation. The Secretary of State and Attorney-General, (Jefferson and Randolph,) favored the reception without qualification. The change of Government, they thought, did not absolve us from the obligation of preexisting treaties. In accordance with this view, the President decided to receive the French Minister.

The grounds upon which the proclamation of neutrality was justified, were, first, that in the condition of France, as it then was, the United States could not become involved in the war without endangering their own safety; and secondly, that our obligations held only in case of a defensive war; whereas the present war had been commenced by France. These were the opinions of the two Secretaries first mentioned. The other two deemed it unnecessary then to decide this question. The proclamation was issued on the 22d of April, 1793. For this act, unanimously advised by the Cabinet, the President was severely censured by his political opponents. It was considered as evidence of hostility towards France.

The new French Minister had arrived at Charleston on the 8th of April, and commenced enlisting American citi zens and fitting out vessels of war, by which British commerce was annoyed, and a British vessel actually captured in our waters. Yet, in these and other similar unlawful acts, he was sustained by a powerful party and its presses. He was told that the people would sustain him. Thus encouraged, he persisted in his warfare against the Government. A large number of British vessels, some of them within the jurisdiction of the United States, were captured by vessels fitted out by Genet, and acting under his au thority. After a brief stay at Charleston, he proceeded to

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