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stantly, occasionally, sometimes, hourly, daily, annually, seldom, rarely, every day, &c.

5. How Long; always, momentarily, instantly, forever, eternally, &c. When definite, this element is expressed by a noun; as, "Remained a week," 99 66 a year," "a short time."

562. The Relation-words most commonly used in the phrase-form are; for 1. When; at, on, within, by, about, between; as, "Walked at night." 2. Before; before, ere; as, "Walked before night."

3. After; after, since; as, "Walked after night."

4. How Often; at, for, in; as, "Walked at every hour."

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5. How Long; during, for, through, throughout; as, Walked during an

hour."

563. The clause-form is either Rel. or Conj.; as, "Came when you went." "Came before you went" (31). "Came after gou went." Comes whenever you go," Staid until you went."

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564. The clause-form of time How Often is sometimes introduced by the conjunction if; as, If the King went out to ride he took his courtiers with him " (whenever the King went, &c.).

565. The relations of time are, of course, only relative, never absolute. Hence each of the above temporal elements may be fixed in the present, the past, or the future, i. e. we may have these five temporal modifiers in each of these three divisions of time; as, "Went at ten o'clock." "Goes at ten." "Shall go at ten." "Went before ten." "Goes before ten." "Shall go be fore ten," &c., of all the others.

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566. DURATION, or time How LONG may be expressed in four ways:1. By noting the length of the period itself; as, Staid a month." 2. By noting the beginning of the period, the termination being supposed to be known; as, "Stayed since last month."

3. By noting the termination of the period, the beginning supposed to be known; as, Stayed until last month."

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4. By noting the beginning and the termination of the period; as, "Stayed from twelve to four o'clock." "Will come. within two hours."

567.

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The Adjective Element may express all these relations of time; as, 1. When. "A summer residence." Vernal beauty." "The Winter solstice." "The two o'clock train." "Current events." 2. Before. "A recent outbreak." "The primitive Church." "A previous meeting." "The year before the war. "The fight of yesterday." 3. After. "The future struggle." "The following day." The approaching contest." Coming events." "Week after next." "The next steamer." 4. How Often. "A daily paper." "An annual meeting." "Repeated efforts." "A diurnal revolution." "Constant dropping." Arrival at every hour."

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5. How Long. "An eternal life." nent situation." "A ten years war."

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EXERCISE 69.-Analyze and define the Objective, Local and Temporal Elements.

1. Arrived at noon. 2. Stayed a month. 3. Will come before six. 4. Goes weekly. 5. The customs of to-day. 6. Night before last. 7. Punctual attendance. 8. The year before the war. 9. Comes frequently. 10. Arrivals at every

hour. 11. A short session. continually. 14. Will live forever. 15. Meets semi-annually. 16. A vertical line. 17. A seaward movement. 18. Continued many weeks. 19. Starved to death. 20. Wheat ground to fine meal. 21. Struck at your brother (485). 22. Struck a bargain.

12. A ten-year war. 13. Flows

Analyze, defining the Objective, Adjective, Local and Temporal Elements, and parse.

23. When the signal was given, the soldiers made a charge against the enemy. 24. At sunrise we commenced our journey to the city. 25. The pilgrims, after living eight years at Leyden, whither they went before they were driven from England, formed the design of emigrating to this country. 26. Ships cross the Atlantic from America to Europe every week. 27. Newspapers are published daily in most of the cities of the United States.

28. "When clouds are seen, wise men put on their cloaks;
When great leaves fall, then winter is at hand;

When the sun sets, who doth not look for night?"-Shak.
29.
"From morn

To noon he fell, from noon to dewy eve
A summer's day and with the setting sun
Dropt from the zenith, like a falling star
On Lemnos, the Egean Isle,"-Milton.

CHAPTER V.

THE CAUSAL MODIFIER.

SEC. I.-DIVISIONS OF THIS ELEMENT.

568. The Causal Modifier limits the predicate by expressing some matter or circumstance which either directly or indirectly, wholly or in part gave rise to the same; as, "Slept because he was weary." "Went to see the city."

569. It may be divided according to the different kinds of conception which it may express, into,

1. Efficient Cause.

2. Constituent Cause.
3. Motive Cause.

4 Conceived Cause.

570. Efficient Cause may be divided into, 1. Origin and Source.

2. Author and Agent.

571. Motive Cause may be divided into, 1. Purpose and Object.

2. Antecedent Cause and Occasion.

572. Constituent Cause may be divided into, 1. Material and Constituency.

2. Supply.

573. Conceived Cause may be divided into,

1. Condition.

2. Concession.

SEC. II.-EFFICIENT CAUSE-ORIGIN AND SOURCE. 574. Origin and Source expresses that whence anything proceeds, springs, or arises, as its formative element; as, "Flowers grow from seeds." "Decended from noble ancestry."

It may refer to things immaterial; as, "Poverty

comes from sloth.

"I extract a sweet

From all my bitter woes."-Cowper.

576. The word-form is usually an adverb; as, "Men are naturally selfish." 577. In the phrase-form the relation-word from is the most common. Of, in and by, and some other relation-words are occasionally used; as, Age doth profit in the powers of the understanding." "We are all sinful by na

ture.'

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578. The clause-form is either a Part. or a Rel. Indef. (Adjunc.) clause; as, "Springs from whatever will give it sustenance.” This came from being intemperate."

"The rays "Star

579. Adjective elements often indicate Origin and Source; as, of the sun.' "The fragrance of the flowers." The taste of honey."

light."

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580. The above expressions must not be confounded with the element of Connection (540). The Causal force is always prominent in the former. Note the difference between "The fragrance of the rose,' and "The color of the rose."

EXERCISE 70.-Analyze and define the Elements.

1. Light proceeds from the sun. 2. Flowers spring from the soil. 3. Heat radiates from the fire. 4. The fragrance of flowers. 5. The sin of lying 6. The sinfulness of lying. 7. The punishment of lying. 8. Were talking of lying 9. Sprang from noble ancestry. 10. Learns of me. 11. Speaks of me. 12. Went from me. 13. Went from home. 14. Comes frequently. 15. Plays on the park. 16. Remained for a year. 17. Labors for his friends. 18. Sailed last week for London. 19. Sails every week from New York. 20. Resulted from his being so much exposed.

Analyze, defining the Elements, and parse.

21. Honor and fame from no condition rise. 22: "Drunkeness is an egg, from which all vices may be hatched." 23. Cunning and treachery often proceed from want of capacity. 24. Constant occupation prevents temptation. 25. Rome was not built in a day. 26. Resist temptation till you can conquer it. 27. When the sea is crossed the saint is generally forgotten.

581.

28. "In her days every man shall eat in safety

Under his own vine what he plants, and sing

The merry songs of peace to all his neighbors."-Shak.

SEC. III.-AUTHOR AND AGENT.

This element expresses a self-acting power or force, material or immaterial, by or through which anything is done; as, "Struck by John."

582. The forces of nature, though strictly speaking not self-acting, are yet generally considered as agents; as, "Blown down by the wind." Destroyed by an earthquake."

"Killed by lightning."

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583. The word-form is usually an adverb; as, "This was divinely accomplished" (i. e. by Deity).

584. In the phrase-form the relation-word by is most common. Of, with, and from are sometimes used; as, "He was seen of Cephas." When with is used an idea of Association (480) is combined; as, "This was well understood with the majority."

585.

Of Clauses, the Indef. Rel. (adjunctive form,) is only used; a1, "It can be done by whoever will undertake the matter."

586. Adjective Elements may denote Author or Agent; as, "The enemy's march." 66 My labor," i. e. labor performed by me. "A parent's care." The rage of Achilles." "The deeds of men." "Our progress."

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587. This use of the adjective element may be easily detected, since a verb or participle may always be inserted, and the adjective clement changed to an adverbial modifier of agency; as, in the case of the examples above, The march performed by the enemy." "Care exercised by a parent." "Progress made by us,' & C.

EXERCISE 71.-Analyze and define the Elements.

4. Our

1. My progress. 2. Our journey. 3. Our defeat. injury, (=injury to us). 5. Our labor. 6. The works of Milton. 7. The poems of Ossian. 8. The exploits of Achilles. 9. The culture of the vine. 10. The advantage of position. 11. The vice of anger. 12. The genius of Bonaparte. 12. The growth of plants. 14. The place of meeting. 15. The dispensations of Providence. 16. The creation of the worlds. 17. The period of one year. 18. Perennial fountains. 19. Eternal motion. 20. A momentary exist

ence.

Analyze, defining the Elements, and parse.

21. America was discovered by Columbus. 22. "He was in the world and the world was made by him." 23. "After that he was seen of above five hundred brethren at once; of whom the greater part remain unto this present (time), (566,3) but some are fallen asleep 24. "Speak no ill of the dead or the absent." 25. "There went out unto him all the land of Judea and they of Jerusalem, and were baptized of him in the river Jordan."-Bible.

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26. "See how the mighty shrink into a song" (493).-Byron.

27. "And ever since that Martial Synod met,

Britannia sickens, Cintra, at thy name (505),

And folks in office at thy (460) mention fret."-Byr‹n.
28. "Milton, whose (540) genius had angelic wings,
And fed on manna."-Cowper.

29. "Ask of the channelled rivers if (307) they have

A safer, easier, more determined course."-Wordsworth.

SEC. IV.-MOTIVE CAUSE-PURPOSE AND OBJECT.

588. This element expresses some matter or circumstance, the prospective attainment or realization of which

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