I prefer his studying for a while. 8. He was said to be wealthy. 9. I recollect his commencing business in Boston. 10. The fact that he had no money. 11. The order for the men to encamp. 12. I heard the band play. 13. I was grieved that they failed. 14. He showed his deep sorrow in that he remained at home. 15. Hindered their moving forward. 16. For them to go is unnecessary. 17. Whoever remained on board the ship perished. 18. We feared his coming. 19. They encouraged his enlisting.

SEC. XV.-SYNONYMOUS ELEMENTS, (Con.)

ATTRIBUTIVE TERMS.

321. 1. A W-f. and a P-f.; as, "Mental imbecility' Imbecility of mind." Spiritually blind":

66

66

-“ Blind in spirit.” "Walks rapidly"="Walks with rapidity." "Convicted legally" "Convicted according to law." Divinely commissioned" "Commissioned by Deity." "A morning walk;" "A walk=in the morning."

=

2. A P-f. and a C-f.; as, "Went to see "-" that he might see for the purpose of seeing." "Loves thee with all thy faults= though thou hast many faults." "Shall arrive in season with a fair wind"-if the wind be fair. "Acted according to directions as he was directed." "The time when the ship should sail for the ship to sail (80) of the ship's sailing" (69)= of the sailing of the ship." "No man ever lived basely without regretting his course but regretted his course (123)=who did not regret his course.' "He lived nobly to the great pleasure of his friends= s=so that he pleased his friends." "No man is so ignorant as not to know his duty as that he does not know his duty but he knows his duty." "Would have been killed but

=

because the "When the

66

After they

3. Any two of the three common attributive clauses, viz: the Part. the Rel. and the Cx. Conj. "Were detained cars had left on account of the cars having left." sun had risen they set sail the sun having risen.' had eaten they departed"=having eaten. EXERCISE 35.-Analyze the following. Give equivalents for the attributive elements.

1. Works vigorously. 2. Virtue's reward. 3. The river's

breadth. 4. My friend's sister. 5. The planetary motions. 6. The city Rome. 7. Cloth manufacture. 8. A Buffalo hunt. 9. Faultless beings. 10. A Parisian fashion. 11. An evening walk. 12. A legal conviction. 13. Apparently moves. 14. Stone buildings. 15. He studies to learn. 16. Without any qualification he applied for the situation. 17. With a favoring breeze we shall reach the port. 18. The hour for the train to leave. 19. Returned because the bridge was broken down. 20. There is not a man who does not know his duty. 21. He gave up his position so that many were surprised. 22. None are so vicious as not to love virtue. 23. Having struck their tents they marched on. 24. Would have been lost but for you. 25. The time of the boat's departure. 26. Advised his going west. 27. There is never an accident but some one suffers.

SEC. XVI. SYNONYMOUS ELEMENTS, (Con.)
PREDICATIVE TERMS.

322. 1. The simple verb, and the copula and complement; as, "John works"=is working. "Charles I. reigned "==

king.

==was

"Was

2. Various expressions; as, "Burn up "=consume. spoken to was addressed. "Is accustomed to labor"=habitually labors. "Keeps speaking" continually speaks. "Appears to move" apparently moves. "Am to go to-morrow shall go to-morrow. "Was not unlearned" =was learned. "John struck James" James was struck by John.

=

=

=

EXERCISE 36.-Analyze the following.

possible.

Give equivalents where

3.

1. Walks. 2. Was made up of many different elements. Speaks continually. 4. Was by no means uneducated. 5. They labor. 6. He kept asking questions. 7. He is to leave to-morrow. 8. They are sowing the seeds of strife. 9. America was discovered by Columbus. 10. Having conquered they took possession of the city. 11. Am certain of his having deceived me. 12. The command that they should move forward. 13. Prevented his entering the army. 14. Felt him touching me. 15. He was said to be a foreigner.

RECAPITULATION.

323. 1. Substantive elements may perform five different offices in a proposition, viz: the Subjective, the Objective, the Predicative, the Appositive, and the Adjunctive.

2. Substantive elements of every class and order are used in each of these five offices.

3. Substantive elements of the clause-form may be any one of the five different clauses (83). The Conj. clause however is only rarely thus used.

4. Each of these five varieties of the clause, excepting only the conjunctive, (208) may perform all the five offices of the Substantive term.

5. Substantive clauses in all languages are usually found with predicative words expressive of intellectual or semi-intellectual processes, i. e. with words of Physical Sensation; Mental State and Action; Mental Emotion; and Communication of Thought.

6. Substantive elements used appositively are at the same time adjective elements; used predicatively they constitute the verbal complement; used adjunctively, they constitute a phrase-form. Hence the Subjective and the Objective Substantive only, are used merely as Substantives.

7. Attributive elements perform three offices, viz: the Adjective, the Adverbial, and the Predicative.

8. Attributive elements of every class and order are used in each of these offices.

9. Attributive elements of the clause-form embrace three of the five regular clause-forms, viz: the Part. the Rel. and the Conj. The App. Adjective clause may be, however, any one of the five.

10. Predicative elements perform four different offices in discourses: the Declarative, the Imperative, the Interrogative, and the Exclamatory. 11. Predicative terms are either simple or complementary. The complement may be a Substantive term, or an Attributive term, when the predicative is the copula.

12. Relation-words and adverbs are sometimes used as Complements with other verbs.

13. Words denoting habit, volition, obligation, repetition, and contingency, take a complement.

14. Sentences are divided, according to the method of statement, into four classes: the Declarative, the Imperative, the Interrogative, and the Exclamatory.

15. Sentence-forms, like clause-forms, may have, all the five uses of substantive elements in a proposition.

16. Clauses are divided, according to method of statement, into five classes, viz: the Declarative, the Imperative, the Interrogative, the Exclamatory, and the Indefinite.

17. Declarative clauses may be in point of construction any one of the five clause-forms.

18. Imperative clauses are usually either Demonstrative or Imperative. They are rarely Participial.

19. Interrogative clauses are introduced by interrogatives, and interrogative phrase-forms, and have no antecedents.

20. Exclamatory clauses differ from Interrogative clauses only in the fact that the former always involve feeling and emotion.

21. Indefinite clauses are introduced by indefinites and indefinite phrases and usually have no antecedents. When used adjectively, they are always oppositives.

24. Many logical elements have synonymous constructions, or grammatical equivalents.

23. Three important qualities characterize every clause-form, viz: the form, the office in the proposition, and the method of statement, or more briefly, form, function, and predicative force. These should always be carefully noted in analyzing.

CHAPTER V.

THE GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION OF LOGICAL ELEMENTS.

SEC. I.-THE NATURE OF GRAMMATICAL CONCORD OR AGREEMENT.

324. We have heretofore considered in their simple and modified forms, the three grand organic forms of expression, viz: the Word, the Phrase, and the Clause. We come now to consider the proper method of combining single words into these organic forms, and consequently into sentences, as determined by the usage of our best writers and speakers.

325. When logically combined, many of the words in our language suffer no change whatever. They retain precisely the same form as when standing alone, as we find them in the Dictionary for instance. This is the case with all the Attributives, (17.3) all Relation-words, and all Connectives.

326. Many, however, suffer certain modifications of form. These are used to indicate the distinctions of Gender and Case which are peculiar to Substantives; of Mood and Tense which are peculiar to Predicatives; and of Number and Person which are common to Substantives and Predicatives.

327. It should be remarked that these six distinctions have both a logical and a grammatical significance. Each of these should be understood if we would gain a clear conception of their several uses, and their proper grammatical constructions in our language.

SEC. II.-GENDER.

328. Gender is properly a characteristic of animate beings, that is, a distinction of sex. As all animate beings are either males or females, there can be of necessity only two genders, viz : the masculine and the feminine.

329. Grammatically considered, gender is a mere verbal form or inflection, used to indicate natural or sexual gender; as lion, lioness; tiger, tigress. As there are but two genders, so there are needed but two gender-forms, a masculine and a feminine. The third personal pronoun, however, since it is used to indicate all objects, whether animate or inanimate, has three gender-forms, a masculine-form "he" to indicate males, a feminine-form "she" to indicate females, and a neuter-form "it" to indicate objects which have no gender.

330. REMARK. A fourth gender, found in many of our grammars, termed the common gender, manifestly has no significance, since neither in meaning, nor in form, has it any existence in fact. No living being certainly is of a common gender; no word in our language has a fourth or common gender form. That some words are used to indicate animate beings regardless of the matter of gender is true; as, for instance, sheep, beeve, deer, fowl, &c. So likewise, some words are used to indicate objects regardless of other specific characteristics; as, tree, bird, metal, &c. In either case we simply use a more general term, when we might, if we chose, use a more definite one; as, for instance, ram, ewe; ox, cow; cock, hen; in the one case; pine, beech; robin, sparrow; gold, silver, &c., in the other case. The common gender, therefore, as a grammatical distinction, is not only useless but false. As regards grammatical construction, gender concerns only the proper use of the third personal pronoun; the masculine, feminine, or neuter forms being used according as its antecedent represents a male, a female, or an inanimate being.

331. With respect to the proper use of the pronoun, as regards gender, it should be noted,

1. That inanimate objects, by the figure of Personification, may be considered as males or females; as, "The sun was shorn of his beams." Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne."

2. When the antecedent is a term, which indicates animate beings, but does not indicate the gender, the masculine form of the pronoun is usually preferred; as, "The child should honor his father." knoweth his owner."

"The ass