honesty are already largely formed. During this period he changes from boyhood to manhood and receives a better understanding of life and the relation of the individual to it. If he can give time to a fair amount of liberal or cultural studies, he will more readily understand human relations and learn to distinguish ethical values. If, however, he immediately enters the customary limited professional course of but four years in architecture based on high school training, thus allowing very little time for cultural studies, the likelihood of his having a good general conception of the normative field is greatly lessened, for his chief preoccupation will be to make a practical success as soon as possible after graduation.

The group trained as first suggested through its analysis of form, character and events, study of literature, sociology, economics, political science, law and philosophy in its various forms including ethics, needs little in the field of professional ethics. These men come from the university with a fairly good understanding of human relations and may be trusted in their relations to society or a specific group, professional or otherwise. For the second group a discussion of the ideals of the profession is much more needed. In any case, the institution can only send out its graduates with the hope that in an age in which so much has been commercialized they will distinguish values and keep up to the highest possible mark and that they will help form an opinion which will raise the general standard of performance.

After graduation those who have the means will in increasing numbers go abroad for study and travel before entering an architect's office for a period of apprenticeship and experience before becoming practitioners.

CONDITIONS OF ENTRANCE TO PRACTICE

Independent practice in former years depended merely on securing some kind of commission or client but in at least twenty-two of our states men must now qualify for practice under registration laws. The young architect thus receives formal recognition by the state with a certain measure of confidence on the part of the public, as in the case of the doctor and the lawyer. In some states candidates for the examination must have two or three years' experience under an architect in addition to a diploma. The Institute has been very conservative on this question and not until three years ago did it give its support to the principle involved. In the minds of many, such laws provide the best means for protecting the public against those utterly lacking in fitness and training for even the lesser responsibilities and smaller problems of the architect. Such laws have very great possibilities for good, have been in effect long enough to demonstrate real value, and give students an objective similar to that of other recognized professions.

The architectural schools have long realized the necessity for higher standards of admission and graduation. At the universities they are directly in touch with the higher requirements effective for law and medicine and have recently won the support of the Institute for longer courses which are to be To

given effect in the near future. encourage sound effort, the Institute has for some years awarded a medal annually to that graduating student of each of the "recognized" schools who has stood highest in his class throughout the duration of the course. A number of architects have been able to provide resident scholarships for deserving students and foreign travelling

scholarships to create an interest in higher artistic achievement through a first-hand acquaintance with master works. Much more can and should be done in this direction, for every architectural student should know at first hand some of the great works of the artistic field abroad, not only in architecture but in painting, sculpture, gardening and city planning.

EXTRA-CLASSROOM FORCES IN
ETHICAL TRAINING

The sense of individual responsibility is developed by allowing students opportunities for activities outside of class work; thus they begin as class officers, serve on committees or student publications, engage in athletics, debates, entertainments, and the like. Such activities develop initiative and a knowledge of men and affairs which are of great value and mean much to the college student. Most of his life is spent outside the classroom, away from the faculty, and thus his associates, amusements, club or fraternity connections have much to do with shaping his ideals. In most cases he retains the religious affiliations made at home and where this is so, a potent constructive force exists for good, probably stronger in so-called denominational institutions than in the others. Practically every architectural school has its student architectural society with its list of speakers,

architectural and otherwise, while there are two national architectural fraternities, the members of which have club houses managed by students at their respective institutions, as do certain other professional student groups. There are also two national honor fraternities for architectural students, also under student control and open only to a certain percentage of the students on the basis of high scholarship, a qualification which demonstrates the effect of student initiative in the recognition of good personality and work.

In institutions where the honor system prevails, where the students themselves undertake supervision of examinations, we have another positive force for good. It will be gratifying to some to know that students have been known to vote down the honor system for examinations, since the men felt that they were on their honor continuously! In some colleges, under such a system, students offending against the code are tried by a student honor committee and if found guilty are dismissed from college by that committee; in other institutions, the findings of the student committee are reported to the faculty concerned, which acts on the recommendation of the honor committee. Nothing can be finer than the willingness of students to accept such a responsibility and nothing will better prepare them for some of the burdens of professional life.

THE

HE professions exist for the purpose of rendering service to humanity. The service to be rendered by the teaching profession is to assist in preparing human beings in their younger periods of life so that they may be equipped mentally, morally and physically to live in the most serviceable manner possible during the whole of life. The rendering of this type of service is not to be done exclusively by the teaching profession. The home is, or should be, the most efficient co-partner in rendering this service. The church should be a close second to the school and the home. Various social organizations and activities also assist in this service.

The teaching profession consists of a group of men and women trained and organized for the rendering of that special service to humanity, and no man or woman is worthy of membership in this profession unless he is thoroughly imbued with a determination to render the service for which the profession exists, even if, at times, it means personal sacrifice. From the ethical point of view, the fundamental qualities of the worthiness of men or women to be in the teaching profession are an unadulterated feeling of loyalty to the purpose of the profession and a thorough determination to render the service required. This test should apply to all alike, even the very beginner in the service who may anticipate that her tenure may be short. The profession should strongly object to the entrance of anyone who is deliberately using it merely as a steppingstone to some other profession or occupation, unless that occupation be motherhood. Moreover, when the obli

gations of motherhood have been satisfied, the mother who was previously trained as a teacher, should be welcomed into active service in the profession. She has probably been much improved in her qualifications as a teacher by her experience as a mother. Her services are needed in the profession. Why should she wait until she becomes a widow before returning to active service?

ENTRANCE STANDARDS

The mode of entrance into the teaching profession is not nearly as uniform as the mode of entrance at present into the medical profession, which in that regard has the most nearly uniform standards of all the professions. On this point, however, the teaching profession will compare very favorably with the other professions with the possible exception of law. The vast majority of the members of the teaching profession, made up of those in the several public school systems, enter the profession by meeting definite requirements laid down by the several states. Unfortunately it is still true that the minimum requirement for entrance is much too low, and one of the first duties of the profession is to take steps to increase the entrance standards. It is encouraging to note that the last few years have seen much improvement in this regard; notwithstanding the great increase in the demand for teachers.

One of the most hopeful signs in the profession is the increased emphasis upon professional training. The tendency, as far as public school service is concerned, is to make entrance into

the profession conditional upon the successful completion of a course of professional training in some professional school. There is even some indication that professional training is being considered as of value when selections are being made for new instructors in some of our colleges and universities.

The lack of uniformity in the modes of entering the profession have made it difficult to instill into the prospective teacher ideals of professional ethics. In fact in hundreds of cases in the past no sense of professional obligation was existent.

ORGANIZATIONS

When it comes to organizations made up of members of the profession we find them very numerous. We have organizations by states, by counties and by local districts; we have organizations on the basis of the subjects taught; we have organizations on the basis of the kind of school or college in which the members teach; for example, organizations of teachers in private preparatory schools, or even of teachers in schools of a given religious denomination. We have organizations made up of teachers in urban universities, for instance. Every few months we learn of a new organization whose members consist of teachers.

That organization of the teaching profession which without doubt should be placed first in our country is the National Educational Association, and it seems to me that that is the organization which will inevitably be the most influential in bringing the profession up to the ideal standards of a profession; but doubtless many other associations will play an important part. In the college and university portion of the profession, the American Association of University Professors seems to bid fair to do much toward bringing its

members up to ideal professional standards.

EXISTING CODES

At least twelve codes of ethics for teachers have been formulated. There may be others which have not come to my notice. Some of these have been prepared by local clubs; for example, the code prepared by the Barnard Club in Providence, Rhode Island. Others have been prepared by teacher's associations which cover certain definite geographical districts, not following state or local municipal lines; for example, the code prepared by the Monongahela Round Table in the northern part of West Virginia. Some have been prepared by students in graduate university courses in education, such as the one prepared at the University of Utah. Several have been prepared by committees of state associations for teachers and afterwards approved by those associations. The state associations in the following states have approved codes: California, Michigan, Mississippi, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York and Oregon. Of these state codes, that prepared by Michigan is the most recent. The one by Pennsylvania is next. The Michigan Code is avowedly in a very tentative form.

The Pennsylvania Code was approved by the State Education Association in December, 1920. Over three years was spent by the committee in preparing it. In the process of preparation, the committee studied all of the other available codes for the profession, as well as the codes of other professions, including medicine, law, architecture and engineering. The Pennsylvania Code is given in full in the appendix of this volume. The code of ethics

1 See "A Code of Ethics for the Teaching Profession Adopted by the Pennsylvania State Education Association," page 281.

adopted by the State Association of Pennsylvania is printed as typical of those adopted by other states. A code A code of ethics was adopted by the New Jersey State Teachers' Association in December, 1914. Other codes have been adopted as indicated on page 122, but the Pennsylvania code was chosen for printing in full because it is both recent in adoption and fairly complete in details. The Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., has published a list of codes for teachers, with references to educational periodicals.

There naturally arises the question as to the relation of the particular code of ethics for a profession to ethical principles in general. That question is probably best answered by saying that a code of ethics for a profession is merely an application of the general principles of ethics to the special obligations, rights and privileges of the profession, having always in mind the special service for which the profession exists. In view of the special relationship between the teaching profession and the youth of our country, it is of the highest importance that each member of the profession shall have achieved in himself a character worthy of daily presentation to those being taught. FIRST PRINCIPLE OF THE TEACHER'S

CODE

The highest obligation of every member of the profession is due to those who are being taught, either by him directly or by the school system in which he holds a place. This is the fundamental ethical principle of the profession. Putting it negatively, this principle states that the teacher's highest obligation is not to the board of school directors, or to the superintendent of the school, or to the principal, or to himself, or to the parents of his pupils. Every disputed or doubtful point in connection with any other

ethical principle should be settled by determining which mode of settlement best meets the obligation asserted in this first principle. This principle should be considered equally applicable to teachers in the colleges and universities.

COMPENSATION

In every profession some of the most troublesome ethical problems arise in connection with the subject of compensation and the related subject of appointments, promotions and contracts. It is unquestionably the urgent duty of the profession to demand adequate compensation, since only when there is adequate compensation can the profession meet its obligation to those being taught. Individuals may, it is true, render the highest type of service with inadequate compensation, but in order that the profession as a whole may render a high type of service, men and women of high ability must be attracted to it. Moreover, when in the profession, they must be financially able to do the various things necessary for efficient service. For example, they must be able to purchase books and periodicals, to travel and, especially, to attend meetings of the various societies in the profession. Furthermore, they must be able to live in their respective communities in such a way as to command respect and recognition by the community. The Michigan Code says, "It is unprofessional for a teacher to sign a yearly contract to teach for a wage that is not sufficient to cover living expenses for twelve months."

PROMOTIONS AND CONTRACTS

Many a teacher, principal or superintendent is tempted to use an unethical procedure when the question of an appointment or promotion is involved, because then

volved, because then his personal