64° 21' S. We to-day made observations throughout the twenty-four hours with Leslie's photometer. On the 17th, about 10 A. M., we discovered the barrier extending in a line ahead, and running north and south as far as the eye could reach. Appearances of land were also seen to the southwest, and its trending seemed to be to the northward. We were thus cut off from any further progress to the westward, and obliged to retrace our steps. This position of the ice disappointed me, although it concurred with what was reasonably to be expected. We were now in longitude 97° 37' E., and latitude 64° 1' S.; our variation was 56° 21' westerly, being again on the decrease. To-day we had several snow-squalls, which, instead of being in flakes, was in small grains, as round as shot, and of various sizes, from that of mustardseed to buckshot. It was remarkably dry, pure white, and not at all like hail. We found the bay we had entered was fifty or sixty miles in depth, and having run in on its southern side, I determined to return along its northern shore, which we set about with much anxiety, as the weather began to change for the worse. Our situation was by no

means such as I should have chosen to encounter bad weather in, the bay being sprinkled with a great many large icebergs. Here we met with a large number of whales, whose curiosity seemed awakened by our presence. Their proximity, however, was any thing but pleasant to us, and their blowings resembled that of a number of locomotives. Their close approach was a convincing proof that they had never been exposed to the pursuit of their skilful hunters. They were of the fin-back species, and of extraordinary size.

Between ten and eleven o'clock at night it was entirely clear over head, and we were gratified with a splendid exhibition of the aurora australis. It exceeded any thing of the kind I had heretofore witnessed; its activity was inconceivable, darting from the zenith to the horizon in all directions in the most brilliant coruscations; rays proceeding as if from a point in the zenith, flashed in brilliant pencillings of light, like sparks of electric fluid in vacuo, and reappeared again to vanish; forming themselves into one body, like an umbrella, or fan, shut up; again emerging to flit across the sky with the rapidity of light, they showed all the prismatic colours at once or in quick succession. So remarkable were the phenomena that even our sailors were constantly exclaiming in admiration of its brilliancy. The best position in which to view it was by lying flat upon the deck, and looking up. The electrometer was tried, but no effect perceived. The star Canopus was in the zenith at the time, and though visible through the aurora, was much diminished in brightness. On this night also the moon was partially eclipsed.

Large icebergs had now become very numerous, and strengthened the belief that the land existing in this vicinity had taken a very decided trend to the northward. I accordingly followed up the northern barrier closely, and passed through the thickest of these bergs, well knowing from our experience that we should have little or no opportunity of seeing the land, unless on the inner side of them. It appeared as though they had collected here from other places, and it is impossible to form an idea of the small space to which we were at times confined. Upwards of one hundred ice

Formation of icebergs.

islands could be counted at a time without the aid of a glass, some of which were several miles long. We enjoyed this beautiful sight_with_the more pleasure, for we had become used to them, and knew from experience that it was possible to navigate through them without accident.

On the 18th, we continued beating to the eastward, and found no end to the apparently interminable barrier. We had a smooth sea, and better weather than I anticipated. At noon, we had retraced our way about forty miles. To-day we again had snow, which fell in the form of regular six-pointed stars. The needles of which these stars were formed were quite distinct, and of regular crystals. The temperature at the time was 28°. The barometer stood at 28-76 in., about threetenths lower than we had had it for the last twelve days. The wind was easterly.

19th. During this day the barrier trended more to the north-east, and we not unfrequently entered bays so deep as to find ourselves, on reaching the extremity, cut off by the barrier, and compelled to return to within a few miles of the place where we had entered. I thought at first that this might have been caused by the tide or current, but repeated trials showed none. Neither did I detect any motion in the floating ice except what was caused by the wind. Our longitude to-day was 101° E., latitude 63° 2′ S. Some anxiety seemed to exist among the officers and crew lest we should find ourselves embayed or cut off from the clear sea, by a line of barrier. There appeared strong reason for this apprehension, as the smooth sea we had had for several days still continued; we had been sailing as if upon a river, and the water had not assumed its blue colour.

It was, therefore, with great pleasure that, on the 20th, a slight swell was perceived, and the barrier began to trend more to the northward, and afterwards again to the westward. In the morning we found ourselves still surrounded by great numbers of ice-islands. After obtaining a tolerably clear space, the day being rather favourable, we sounded with the deep-sea line eight hundred and fifty fathoms. Six's thermometer gave at the surface 31°, and at the depth of eight hundred and fifty fathoms 35°, an increase of four degrees. The current was again tried, but none was found. A white object was visible at eleven fathoms. The water had now assumed a bluish cast.

We endeavoured to-day to land on an iceberg, but there was too much sea. Shrimps were in great quantities about it, but swam too deep to be taken. The wind again hauled to the westward, which disappointed me, as I was in hopes of getting to the position where Cook saw the ice in 1773, being now nearly in the same latitude. It was less than one hundred miles to the westward of us; and little doubt can exist that its situation has not materially changed in sixty-seven years.

The observations of the squadron during this season's antarctic cruise, together with those of the preceding year, would seem to confirm the opinion that very little change takes place in the line of ice. It may be inferred that the line of perpetual congelation exists in a lower latitude in some parts of the southern hemisphere than in others. The icy barrier retreats several degrees to the south of the Antarctic Circle to the west of Cape Horn, while to the eastward it in places advances to the north

ward of that line, which is no doubt owing to the situation of the land. From the great quantities of ice to be found drifting in all parts of the ocean in high southern latitudes, I am induced to believe that the formation of the ice-islands is much more rapid than is generally supposed. The manner of their formation claimed much of my attention while among them, and I think it may be explained satisfactorily and without difficulty. In the first place, I conceive that ice requires a nucleus, whereon the fogs, snow, and rain, may congeal and accumulate; this the land affords. Accident then separates part of this mass of ice from the land, when it drifts off, and is broken into many pieces, and part of this may again join that which is in process of formation."

From the accumulation of snow, such a mass speedily assumes a flat or table-topped shape, and continues to increase. As these layers accumulate, the field-ice begins to sink, each storm (there of frequent occurrence) tending to give it more weight. The part which is now attached to the land remains aground, whilst that which is more remote being in deep water is free to sink. The accumulated weight on its outer edge produces fissures or fractures at the point where it takes the ground, which the frosts increase; thus separated, the surface again becomes horizontal, and continues to receive new layers from snow, rain, and even fogs, being still retained to the parent mass by the force of attraction. The fogs have no small influence in contributing to the accumulation: some idea may be formed of the increase from this cause, from the fact that during a few hours the ice accumulated to the thickness of a quarter of an inch on our rigging and spars, though neither rain nor snow fell. It may, therefore, I think, be safely asserted that these icebergs are at all times on the increase; for there are few days, according to our experience in this climate, in which some mode of precipitation does not prevail in these high latitudes, where, according to our observations, ice seldom melts. The temperature of even the summer months being rarely above the freezing point, masses of a thousand feet in thickness might require but few years to form. Icebergs were seen in all stages of formation, from five to two hundred feet above the surface, and each exposed its stratification in horizontal layers from six inches to four feet in thickness. When the icebergs are fully formed, they have a tabular and stratified appearance, and are perfectly wall-sided, varying from one hundred and eighty to two hundred and ten feet in height. These were frequently found by us in their original situation, attached to the land, and having the horizontal stratification distinctly visible.

In some places we sailed for more than fifty miles together, along a straight and perpendicular wall, from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet in height, with the land behind it. The icebergs found along the coast afloat were from a quarter of a mile to five miles in length; their separation from the land may be effected by severe frost rending them asunder, after which the violent and frequent storms may be considered a sufficient cause to overcome the attraction which holds them to the parent mass. In their next stage they exhibit the process of decay, being found fifty or sixty miles from the land, and for the most part

with their surfaces inclined at a considerable angle to the horizon. This is caused by a change in the position of the centre of gravity, arising from the abrading action of the waves.

By our observations on the temperature of the sea, it is evident that these ice-islands can be little changed by the melting process before they reach the latitude of 60°. The temperature of the sea (as observed by the vessels going to and returning from the south), showed but little change above this latitude, and no doubt it was at its maximum, as it was then the height of the summer season.

During their drift to the northward, on reaching lower latitudes, and as their distance from the land increases, they are found in all stages of decay; some forming obelisks; others towers and Gothic arches; and all more or less perforated: some exhibit lofty columns, with a natural bridge resting on them of a lightness and beauty inconceivable in any other material.

While in this state, they rarely exhibit any signs of stratification, and some appear to be formed of a soft and porous ice; others are quite blue; others again show a green tint, and are of hard flinty ice. Large ice-islands are seen that retain their tabular tops nearly entire until they reach a low latitude, when their dissolution rapidly ensues; whilst some have lost all resemblance to their original formation, and had evidently been overturned. The process of actually rending asunder was not witnessed by any of the vessels, although in the Flying-Fish, when during fogs they were in close proximity to large ice-islands, they inferred from the loud crashing, and the sudden splashing of the sea on her, that such occurrences had taken place. As the bergs gradually become worn by the abrasion of the sea, they in many cases form large overhanging shelves, about two or three feet above the water, extending out ten or twelve feet; the under part of this projecting mass exhibits the appearance of a collection of icicles hanging from it. The temperature of the water when among the icebergs, was found below or about the freezing point.

I have before spoken of the boulders embedded in the icebergs. All those that I had an opportunity of observing, apparently formed a part of the nucleus, and were surrounded by extremely compact ice, so that they appear to be connected with that portion of the ice that would be the last to dissolve, and these boulders would therefore in all probability be carried to the farthest extent of their range before they were let loose or deposited.

The ice-islands, on being detached from their original place of formation by some violent storm, are conveyed to the westward by the south-east winds which are prevalent here, and are found, the first season after their separation, about seventy miles north of the barrier. This was inferred from the observations of both the Vincennes and Porpoise, the greatest number having been found about that distance from the barrier. That these were recently detached is proved by their stratified appearance; while those at a greater distance had lost their primitive form, were much worn, and showed many more signs of decay. Near the extreme point of the barrier visited, in longitude 97° E., latitude 62° 30′ S., and where it begins to trend to the westward, vast collections of these islands were encountered. From this point they

must pass to the northward during the next season, partly influenced by the current, and partly scattered by the prevailing winds, until they reach the sixtieth degree of latitude, when they encounter the easterly and north-easterly streams that are known to prevail, which carry them rapidly to the north.

Our data for their actual drift, though not altogether positive, are probably the best than can be had, and will go far towards ascertaining the velocity of their progress to lower latitudes; our observations also furnish some estimate of the time in which they are formed. On our way south, we did not fall in with ice-islands until we reached latitude 61° S. The Peacock was the first to return, and nearly upon the track by which we had gone south; the last seen by her was in 55° S. The Vincennes, on her return fifty days later, saw them in 51° S. The Porpoise, about the same time, in 53° S.

The observation in the Vincennes gives a distance of ten degrees of latitude, or six hundred miles to be passed over in fifty days, which would give about half a mile an hour; or, taking the Peacock's observations, a more rapid rate would be given, nearly three-fourths of a mile. Many icebergs were met in the latitude of 42° S., by outward-bound ships to Sydney, in the month of November; these, I learned, were much worn, and showed lofty pinnacles, exhibiting no appearance of having ever been of a tabular form. These no doubt are such as were detached during a former season, and being disengaged from the barrier, would be naturally, early the next season, drifted by the easterly current as well as the westerly wind, and would pursue the direction they give them. They would therefore be driven to the north-east as far as the south-east winds prevail, and when these veer to the westward would receive an easterly direction. It is where these winds prevail that they are most frequently found by the outward-bound vessels,-between the latitudes of 40° and 50° S.

Respecting the period of time required for the formation of these ice-islands, much light cannot be expected to be thrown on the subject; but the few facts derived from observations lead to some conclusions. Many of them were measured, and their altitude found to be from fifty to two hundred and fifty feet; eighty distinct stratifications were counted in some of the highest, and in the smallest thirty, which appeared to average a little more than two feet in thickness. Supposing the average fall of snow in these high latitudes to be an inch a day, or thirty feet a year, the largest icebergs would take more than thirty years to form. They were seen by us in all the stages of their growth, and all bore unequivocal marks of the same origin. The distance from the land at which they were forming, fully satisfied me that their fresh water could only be derived from the snows, &c.

The movement of the ice along the coast is entirely to the westward, and all the large ranges of ice-islands and bergs were found in that direction, while the eastern portion was comparatively free from it. A difference was found in the position of the floe-ice by the different vessels, caused rather by the wind than by the tide. When the Vincennes and Porpoise passed the opening by which the Peacock entered, it was found closed, although only twenty-four hours had elapsed. It

Evidence in relation to the Antarctic Continent.

has been seen that the ice had much movement during the time the Peacock was beset by it, and the bay was all but closed when she effected her escape. Another instance occurred, where the Porpoise, in about the longitude of 130° E., found the impracticable barrier a few miles further south than the Vincennes did six or seven days after; but this fact is not to be received as warranting any general conclusion, on account of the occurrence of south-east gales during the intermediate time. The trials for currents have, for the most part, shown none to exist. The Porpoise, it is true, experienced some, but these were generally after a gale. If currents do exist, their tendency is westward, which I think the drift of the ice would clearly prove. The difference between the astronomic positions and those given by deadreckonings, was of no avail here as a test*, for the courses of the vessels among the ice were so tortuous, that the latter could not be depended upon.

The winds which prevail from the south-west to the south-east occasionally bring clear weather, interrupted by flurries of snow; the north wind is light, and brings thick fogs, attended by a rise of temperature. Extremes of weather are experienced in rapid succession, and it is truly a fickle climate.

The evidence that an extensive continent lies within the icy barrier, must have appeared in the account of my proceedings, but will be, I think, more forcibly exhibited by a comparison with the aspect of other lands in the same southern parallel. Palmer's Land, for instance, which is in like manner invested with ice, is so at certain seasons of the year only, while at others it is quite clear, because strong currents prevail there, which sweep the ice off to the north-east. Along the Antarctic Continent for the whole distance explored, which is upwards of fifteen hundred miles, no open strait is found. The coast, where the ice permitted approach, was found enveloped with a perpendicular barrier, in some cases unbroken for fifty miles. If there was only a chain of islands, the outline of the ice would undoubtedly be of another form; and it is scarcely to be conceived that so long a chain could extend so nearly in the same parallel of latitude. The land has none of the abruptness of termination that the islands of high southern latitudes exhibit; and I am satisfied that it exists in one uninterrupted line of coast, from Ringgold's Knoll, in the east, to Enderby's Land, in the west; that the coast (at longitude 95° E.) trends to the north, and this will account for the icy barrier existing, with little alteration, where it was seen by Cook in 1773. The vast number of ice-islands conclusively points out that there is some extensive nucleus which retains them in their position; for I can see no reason why the ice should not be disengaged from islands, if they were such, as happens in all other cases in like latitudes. The formation of the coast is different from what would probably be found near islands, soundings being obtained in comparatively shoal water; and the colour of the water also indicates that it is not like other southern lands, abrupt and precipitous. This cause is sufficient to retain the huge masses of ice, by their being attached by their lower surfaces instead of their sides only.

* The fact of there being no northerly current along this extended line of coast, is a strong proof in my mind of its being a continent, instead of a range of islands.

Much inquiry and a strong desire has been evinced by geologists, to ascertain the extent to which these ice-islands travel, the boulders and masses of earth they transport, and the direction they take.

From my own observations, and the information I have collected, there appears a great difference in the movements of these vast masses; in some years, great numbers of them have floated north from the Antarctic Circle, and even at times obstructed the navigation about the capes. The year 1832 was remarkable in this respect; many vessels bound round Cape Horn from the Pacific, were obliged to put back to Chili, in consequence of the dangers arising from ice; while, during the preceding and following years, little or none was seen this would lead to the belief, that great changes must take place in the higher latitudes, or the prevalence of some cause to detach the ice-islands from the barrier in such great quantities as to cover almost the entire section of the ocean south of the latitude 50° S. Taking the early part of the (southern) spring, as the time of separation, we are enabled to make some estimate of the velocity with which they move: many masters of vessels have met them some six or seven hundred miles from the barrier, from sixty to eighty days after this period, which will give a near approximation to our results heretofore stated.

The season of 1339 and 1840 was considered as an open one, from the large masses of ice that were met with in a low latitude, by vessels that arrived from Europe at Sydney: many of them were seen as far north as latitude 42° S.

The causes that prevail to detach and carry them north are difficult to assign. I have referred to the most probable ones that would detach them from the parent mass in their formation. Our frequent trials of currents, as has been stated, did not give us the assurance that any existed; but there is little doubt in my mind that they do prevail. I should not, however, look to a surface current as being the motive power that carries these immense masses at the rate they move; comparatively speaking, their great bulk is below the influence of any surface current, and the rapid drift of these masses by winds is still more improbable; therefore I conceive we must look to an under current as their great propeller. In one trial of the deep-sea thermometer, we found the temperature beneath four degrees warmer than the surface. Off Cape Horn, the under temperature was found as cold as among the ice itself; repeated experiments have shown the same to occur in the arctic regions. From this I would draw the conclusion that changes are going on, and it appears to me to be very reasonable to suppose, that at periods, currents to and from the poles should at times exist; it is true, we most generally find the latter to prevail, as far as our knowledge of facts extends, but we have not sufficient information yet to decide that there is not a reflow towards the pole; the very circumstance of the current setting from the higher latitudes, would seem a good argument that there must be some counter-current to maintain the level of the waters. These masses, then, are most probably carried away in the seasons when the polar streams are the strongest, and are borne along by them at the velocity with which they move: that these do

not occur annually may be inferred from the absence of ice-islands in the lower latitudes; and that it is not from the scarcity of them, those who shared the dangers of the antarctic cruise, will, I have little doubt, be ready to testify; for, although great numbers of them studded the ocean that year, yet the narrative shows that vast numbers of them were left.

The specific gravity of the ice varies very much, as might naturally be expected; for while some of it is porous and of a snowy texture, other islands are in great part composed of a compact blue flinty ice. This difference is occasioned by the latter becoming saturated with water, which afterwards freezes.

On the ice there was usually a covering of about two feet of snow, which in places had upon it a crust of ice not strong enough to bear the weight of a man. Those ice-islands, which after having been once seen, were again passed through immediately after a gale, were observed to be changed in appearance; but though for forty-eight hours a severe storm had been experienced, they had not undergone so great a transformation as not to be recognized. They also appeared to have shifted their position with regard to one another, their former bias and trendings being broken up.

During our stay on the icy coast, saw nothing of what is termed pack-ice,—that is, pieces forced one upon the other by the action of the sea or currents.

On the 21st, the weather became unsettled, with light westerly winds, and we made but little progress to the westward. The barrier, at 6 P.M., was seen trending to the westward. In consequence of indications that threatened bad weather, I deemed it useless risk to remain in the proximity of so many ice-islands; and a strong breeze, with squally weather, having already set in, I took advantage of it, feeling satisfied that our further continuance in this icy region would not only be attended with peril to the ship, but would cause a waste of the time which was demanded by my other duties; and having nearly three thousand miles to sail to our next port (Bay of Islands), I made up my mind to turn the head of the vessel northward.

I therefore had the officers and crew called aft, thanked them all for their exertions and good conduct during the trying scenes they had gone through, congratulated them on the success that had attended us, and informed them that I had determined to bear up and return north.

Having only twenty-five days' full allowance of water, I ordered its issue to be reduced to half allowance.

I have seldom seen so many happy faces, or such rejoicings, as the announcement of my intention to return produced. But although the crew were delighted at the termination of this dangerous cruise, not a word of impatience or discontent had been heard during its continuance. Neither had there been occasion for punishment; and I could not but be thankful to have been enabled to conduct the ship through so difficult and dangerous a navigation without a single accident, with a crew in as good, if not in better condition than when we first reached the icy barrier. For myself, I indeed felt worse for the fatigues and anxieties I had undergone; but I was able to attend to all my duties,

ON the 22nd January, 1840, the Porpoise lost sight of the Peacock, and continued beating to the south-west. The weather was extremely cold; seawater froze on being a few minutes in the bucket on deck. Some shrimps were caught. The water at 3 P.M. was much discoloured; got a cast of the lead with two hundred fathoms: no bottom; found the current south-by-east three-fourths of a mile per hour. At 4h 30m, passed large icebergs, one of which had several dark horizontal veins, apparently of earth, through it; large quantities of floe and drift-ice to the southward; the sea very smooth. A report of high land was made this morning; indeed every thing indicated the proximity of land. The number of seals, whales, penguins, shrimps, &c., had very much increased. The pure white pigeons were also seen in numbers.

23rd. Countless icebergs in sight; the sea quite smooth; not the slightest motion perceptible. At meridian, they were in latitude 66° 44' S., longitude 151° 24' E., and close to the barrier, which appeared quite impenetrable, as far as the eye could reach from aloft, to the north-north-west and northnorth-east, with numberless immense ice-islands entangled and enclosed in it in all directions. The position they occupied seemed an inlet of elliptical shape, with an opening to the north. It was needless to count the many scattering islands of ice distinct from the vast chain; intermingled with field-ice, they studded the gulf like so many islands, of various shapes and dimensions. At 2h 25m, a sail was discovered on the lee bow; kept off to communicate, supposing it to be the Vincennes or Peacock. At 2h 30m, the Peacock was made out on the southern board, showing no disposition to communicate; showed our colours, and hauled to the westward.

24th. The day was remarkably fine, such as is seldom experienced in this region. The water appeared much discoloured and of a dirty olive-green colour. At meridian, they again made the fieldice, and tacked to the northward, passing through large quantities of ice-islands; weather looking bad, with occasional light snow-storms.

25th. Part of this day was clear and pleasant,

though snow fell at intervals; the field-ice was in sight several times, and many ice-islands of great size and beauty. Penguins were swimming round, and also several shoals of black-fish; a black albatross was shot; towards night the weather became very thick; they were in longitude 150° E., latitude 65° 56' S.

26th. Fresh winds blowing from the eastward; during the first few hours, a thick snow-storm; at 4 A.M. it cleared; at six o'clock made a sail; the strange sail fired a gun and made signal, when we bore down and spoke her; she proved to be the Vincennes; compared chronometers, and received rate; bore off to the westward under all sail; found the drift and floe-ice very thick, and were with great difficulty enabled to navigate through it; wind fresh, with a long swell from the south-west; at 5h 30m, the ice increasing in quantity, found it was necessary to haul off. Lost sight of the Vincennes; weather very threatening. The course during the day proved a very tortuous one; many penguins resting on the ice; their gait is an awkward kind of strut.

Received orders to-day by signal to meet the Vincennes along the icy barrier between the 20th and 28th of next month.

27th. This day proved clear and cold; wind from the south-west; ice forming rapidly on the vessel; at meridian, lost sight of the Vincennes ; very many ice-islands in sight; latitude 65° 41' S., longitude 142° 31' E. On this day, LieutenantCommandant Ringgold determined with the fair wind to pass to the extreme limit of his orders, longitude 105° E.; being of opinion he would thereby save time, and be enabled more effectually to examine the barrier with what he thought would be found the prevailing wind, viz. that from the westward; in this, however, he was mistaken.

The 28th set in with a light breeze from eastnorth-east; made all sail; at 5 A.M., wind increasing rapidly, snow falling fast, and whether becoming thick; at six o'clock, made the floe and driftice; shortened sail, and hauled off to the north-west, it becoming so thick as to render any advance unsafe; until meridian, very strong winds from the