The zeal and courage of the followers of the Cross never faltered. They struggled to propagate the Faith, and to mitigate the ferocity of the times. To the Christian Priests, also, the world is indebted for the preservation of the literary relics of antiquity. Devoting portions of their time to cultivation of the earth, and to religious instruction, they gave their leisure to copying the ancient manuscripts, which they hid away in the recesses of their abodes. Accordingly, it is not surprising to find that the Monasteries, which began to spring up in the sixth century, were respected even by the ruthless Chiefs of that epoch.*

The advent of Charlemagne towards the end of the eighth century, changed the face of Europe. It was he who put an end to the invasions of the barbarians from the North and of the Mohammedans from the South, and thus saved the West of Europe. One after the other he overthrew all the barbarous Chieftains, and restored peace and order in France, Italy, Germany, and a portion of Spain. He then endeavoured to revive Learning and the Arts. He called over Alcuin, a humble Priest of Yorkshire (780), remarkable for his great knowledge, and with his aid founded numerous schools at Paris, Tours, and Aix-la-Chapelle, where Grammar, Arithmetic, Theology, and the Humanities were taught. He founded an Academy, or University, the first in France; of which he was a member, and Alcuin the head. He built numerous harbours which initiated Commerce, and stimulated Agriculture: above all, he

* Saint Benoit founded in 529, in the south of Italy, the first religious residence or monastery, and gave to his disciples who followed him thither the name of Benedictines, after his own appellation of Benedictus.

made the wise laws which are known under the title of "Capitularies." Among these 1151 ordinances may be found precepts, moral advice, and religious exhortation. As, for instance, "We must practise hospitality." "If any man meets a beggar who will not labor with his hands, let him beware of giving anything to him." "Let no man think that he can only pray God in three languages, for God can be worshipped in every tongue; and the prayer of every man is answered if he asks for those things that are right."

Appearing in the midst of a barbaric and lawless age, Charlemagne achieved every kind of greatness-military, political, and intellectual. Out of a chaos of nations and institutions not only foreign but hostile to each other, he created a vast and powerful Monarchy which he governed with rare administrative skill and marvellous wisdom. His conquests vastly aided Christianity, for he introduced the New Religion among various wild tribes. He restored Leo III. to his Papacy, and was crowned by him "Emperor of the West" in the year 800.* Measured by the age in which he lived, and by his services to civilization, Charlemagne of France may be considered as one of the greatest men of any epoch.

His Empire crumbled to pieces in the hands of his descendants; and from the fragments grew up three distinct Nationalities-France, Germany, and Italy. In each of these States, now so well defined, the population at that time differed widely in race,

* After Constantine had removed to Constantinople, 330 A.D., the Roman Empire was divided into East and West, each governed by an Emperor. The title of "Emperor of the West" was revived by Leo III., and bestowed on Charlemagne, who was really master of all the territory once tributary to the Roman Empire.

language, manners, and usages. Many centuries and various events were necessary to weld and mould them into that national unity they now possess.

Although the great work of Charlemagne seemed to perish with himself; though lawlessness and bloodshed appeared once more to resume their sway; yet, from his advent we must date the Birth of Modern Society. "From the time of Charlemagne," writes M. Guizot, "the face of things changes; decay is arrested, progress recommences. Yet, for a long time, the disorder will be enormous; the progress partial, often hardly visible, and frequently suspended. This matters not. We shall no longer encounter those long ages of disorganization, of ever-increasing intellectual sterility; and, through a thousand sufferings, a thousand interruptions, we shall see power and life revive in man and society. Charlemagne marks the limit at which the dissolution of the ancient Roman world is consummated, and where the formation of modern Europe, of the new world, really begins. It was under his reign, and, as it were, under his hand, that the shock took place by which European society, turning right round, left the paths of destruction to enter those of creation."

Before dismissing this dreary epoch known as the Dark Ages, it is worth remarking that the moral inundation which swept over Europe at the end of the fifth century, was composed entirely of the Teutonic element. The Saxons who seized on Britain; the Franks, or "free men" of the Rhine, who occupied Gaul; the Herules and Lombards who appropriated Italy; the Goths who dashed into Spain, were all German tribes.

The conquering Teutons, it must be remembered,

in addition to Roman colonies and Roman civilization, found a strong Celtic element in nearly all the countries which fell into their hands. For a time, the two elements, Teuton and Celtic, remained separate and hostile-the one in the pride of complete domination, the other in the despair of complete subjection. But these distinctions gradually ceased, and were almost wholly lost sight of. The Frank and the Gaul, the Saxon and the Briton amalgamated, and together formed new nations neither Teutonic nor Celtic. The supremacy of the conquerors, however, did not wholly pass away. They still constituted the Upper Classes, and owned all the land; whilst the conquered tilled the soil, and endured all the toil and humiliations of serfdom.

THE NEW POLITY.

I HAVE now done with general history. Hereafter I propose to call attention more especially to the career of the three countries-France, England, and the United States-which have marched in the van of the fourth civilization. Their struggles and sacrifices have contributed to undermine the political and social structure bequeathed by the ancient world, and to lay the foundations of a New Polity. This modern organization has taken deep root in all of the countries named, and each has assisted in its development. The salient features of this new condition are Religious Toleration, Political Liberty, and Legal Equality. These are the fruits of that fourth civilization which communicated a new impulse to Humanity by declaring the Equality of all men before God.

We observed, under the first, second, and third civilizations, that the various religions of each sustained the laws which vested all the power in the hands of the few, and consigned the many to eternal thraldom. The doctrines of Christianity, on the contrary, imparted to the masses strong hopes of redemption, both here and hereafter; and from that day to this, they have, blindly but earnestly, groped onwards, as if under divine impulsion, through endless vicissitudes, until they have emerged, as it were, on a plateau in each of the three countries in question, where no right, no privilege, no benefit is denied to any member