ship"; see A. Y. B., 1914, p. 673), the psychology of money-making, and the possible future developments of "altruism, the instinct of devotion," in business life. the barrier is to "develop a concept | gy. It deals primarily with the inof social value and valuation inde- stinct of contrivance (nearly related pendent of market valuations and to Veblen's "instinct of workmancapable of scientific application to concrete cases." Prof. C. H. Cooley, who for some years has been working in this direction, adds this year a study of "The Progress of Pecuniary Valuation" (Quar. Jour. of Economics, Nov., 1915). Certain of the changes in the treatment of value made by Prof. F. A. Fetter in the new edition of his Economic Principles (Century Co.) show how the "American psychological school" can accommodate its theories to this departure. Economic Psychology.-Prof. Thorstein Veblen's Imperial Germany and the Industrial Revolution (Macmillans) is an analysis of the difference between the cultural situation in Germany and England. Racially he holds the two populations to be substantially alike; they differ culturally because one people has been subjected to the discipline of modern industrial methods longer than the other. These industrial methods favor the growth of a democratic state, of class animosities, and of wasteful and lazy habits among the well-to-do. The English developed the machine technology gradually and long enough since to permit these cultural consequences to work themselves out. The Germans borrowed the same methods ready made and so recently that they have not yet had time to subvert the old cultural order, with its coercive state, its unquestioning acquiescence in dynastic leadership, and its frugal and industrious habits. Hence the Germans benefit by the full efficiency of machine production, as yet without the abatements which require generations for their development. Veblen has made a similar analysis of the cultural status of Japan (Jour. of Race Development, July). The best discussion of Veblen's work in this field comes from Graham Wallas (Quar. Jour. of Economics, Nov., 1915). Prof. F. W. Taussig's Inventors and Money-makers (Macmillans) is another constructive study in the borderland between economics and psycholo Business Cycles.-Much attention has naturally been given to the extraordinary business conditions brought about by the European War. Among the most noteworthy American contributions have been Prof. O. M. W. Sprague's careful study of "The Crisis of 1914 in the United States" (Am. Economic Rev., Sept., 1915); Dr. H. P. Willis's analysis of “American Finance and the European War" (Jour. of Political Economy, Feb., 1915); and J. J. Arnold's account of "The American Gold Fund of 1914" (ibid., July, 1915). Prof. E. J. Clapp's book, Economic Aspects of the War (Yale University Press) deals primarily with the economic rights of Americans as neutrals and the danger that threatens them. Less of current and more of theoretical interest attaches to Prof. Minnie T. England's exposition of "Promotion as the Cause of Crises" (Quart. Jour. of Economics, Aug., 1915), and to Professor M. T. Copeland's study of "Statistical Indices of Business Conditions" (ibid.). In this connection it may be noticed that the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics has adopted a new form for its important index numbers of prices (see its bulletins). Theory of Rate Making.-Seven different papers by as many writers on special phases of rate regulation in the Journal of Political Economy (Jan., Feb., and June), two other articles in the American Economic Review (March and June), and a continuation of last year's controversy between Prof. A. A. Young and J. S. Davis (Quart. Jour. of Economics, Feb.) show how lively an interest economists are taking in this problem. Prof. W. Z. Ripley's elaborate analysis has been completed by the appearance of his second volume (Railroads: Finance and Organization, Longmans). XXVII. PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY PSYCHOLOGY HERBERT SIDNEY LANGFELD though the thought processes have received attention and investigations in memory have been especially numerous during the year. The Nela Research Laboratory, National Lamp Works of the General Electric Co., continues to offer excellent opportunity for careful research in the field of vision. A recent publication from that laboratory is Knight Dunlap's paper, "A New Measure of Visual Discrimination" (Psych. Rev., Jan., 1915). By means of an Iceland-spar crystal a double image of a line or rectangle is produced and the relation of the two images is varied by rotating the crystal. This affords a precise and convenient method of testing visual acuity. Another useful instrument is that described by L. T. Troland in a paper entitled "The Theory and Practice of the Artificial Pupil" (ibid., May, 1915). In the department of sensations, C. E. Ferree and G. Rand have added another to their numerous articles upon vision, entitled, "A Preliminary Study of the Deficiencies of the Method of Flicker for the Photometry of Lights of Different Colors" (ibid., March, 1915). They advise a careful study of the factors of flicker be Fundamental Principles. That R. S. Woodworth in his presidential address before the American Psychological Society in December, 1914, chose as his subject "A Revision of Imageless Thought" (Psych. Rev., Jan., 1915) is evidence of the importance and interest of the inquiry into the fundamental nature of the higher thought processes. The question which has been put to experimental test on both sides of the Atlantic is whether thought is nothing but sensations and images, or whether there is an element sui generis, that is, imageless thought. Woodworth adopts the latter alternative and finds these imageless elements in the remote relations of a given perception, which are the memories of past experience. E. B. Titchener ("Sensation and System," Am. Jour. of Psych., April, 1915), in answering Rahn's criticism of his system, takes occasion to emphasize the necessity of subordinating system to data, speculation to experimentation. Courses upon behavioristic psychology are increasing in the large universities. An important article upon the behavior method is that by E. B. Holt, entitled "Response and Cognition" (Jour. of Philos., Psych., and Scientific Meth-fore it is used as a method for standods, July 8 and 22, 1915). The author tries to show that the essential point in animal behavior is the response, which he defines as "any process of release which is a function of factors external to the mechanism released." He then goes on to argue that this same is also the cognitive relation, and is (instead of "mind") the basis of psychology (see also Philosophy, infra). ardizing laboratories. E. G. Boring has made extensive investigations of the sensations of several heretofore unexplored internal organs. His two papers are entitled "Sensations of the Alimentary Canal" (Am. Jour. of Psych., Jan., 1915), and "Processes Referred to the Alimentary and Urinary Tracts" (Psych. Rev., July, 1915). Two investigations of time perception should be mentioned. BerExperimental Human Psychology. tha von der Nienburg found in her -There seems to be an indication in experiments ("The Apparent Rate of America of a revival of the old in- Light Succession as Compared with terest in the various sensations, al-Sound Succession," ibid., Jan., 1915) that the generally accepted statement | 29, 1915) found that a long list of that of equal times marked off by words acts as a stimulus to greater light and sound the intervals in the effort. A short list is learned by rote succession of lights seem shorter than without much attention to the meanthose of sound does not always hold. ing, while a long list favors meaningKnight Dunlap found in his investi- ful apprehension, which aids retengation ("The Shortest Perceptible tion. H. F. Adams in his investigaTime Interval Between Two Flashes tion ("A Note on the Effect of of Light," ibid., May, 1915) that the Rhythm on Memory," Psych. Rev., temporal threshold is lower for the July, 1915) found that rhythms aflight-adapted eye. An investigation fected men and women differently, and in auditory space perception has been irregularity of presentation was more completed by L. R. Geissler ("Sound disturbing to women than to men. Localization under Determined Ex- E. L. Woods writes ("An Experimenpectation," Am. Jour. of Psych., tal Analysis of the Process of RecApril, 1915). Expectation influences ognizing," Am. Jour. of Psych., July, the localization of sounds. More 1915) that recognition is not a mosounds of unknown localization are ment of consciousness but a progresprojected in front than behind, due sive consciousness. There must be a to expectation arising from the pre- perceptible interval between percepdominating influence of vision upon tion and reaction in order to have our life. J. E. Downey and J. E. recognition. An investigation upon Anderson have investigated motor the thought processes is that of T. V. control ("Automatic Writing," ibid., Moore ("The Temporal Relation of April, 1915). Although they found Meaning and Imagery," Psych. Rev., a simultaneity of mental processes May, 1915). Meaning was found to when writing while speaking, and be present before the accompanying writing while adding, yet introspec- images. He therefore concludes that tion showed that there was not en- imagery, although it may be context, tire absence of conscious control of cannot be meaning, but that the latthe pencil. An investigation which ter is a unique process. In the submay be important for the measure- ject of æsthetics interesting work conment of attention is that of E. G. tinues to come from the Psychological Martin, B. D. Paul, and E. S. Welles, Laboratory of Vassar College. Two entitled, "A Comparison of Reflex titles are "The Influence of Fatigue Threshold with Sensory Threshold" on Affective Sensitiveness to Colors" (ibid., July, 1915). The wink reac- and "The Source of Affective Reaction was found to vary less than the tions to Articulate Sounds" (Am. sensory threshold reaction, the latter Jour. of Psych., April, 1915). J. E. depending upon the higher nerve cen- Downey has published an experiment ters and probably involving attention. in æsthetics entitled "Emotional L. J. Martin has continued her work Poetry and the Preference Judgment" upon imagery. In a paper entitled (Psych. Rev., July, 1915). She found "Ghosts and the Projection of Visual that group reactions to emotional Imagery" (ibid., April, 1915) she poetry are slightly more subjective says that whether we see ghosts or than to imaginal poetry. R. C. Givnot depends upon whether we normal- ler has made an extensive study of ly project our visual images into the relation between sound and æsspace. She also believes that by the thetic appreciation in poetry ("The analysis of spontaneous imagery we Psycho-Physiological Effect of the can investigate the subconscious ("An Elements of Speech in Relation to Experimental Contribution to the Poetry," Psych. Monogr., xix, No. 2, Investigation of the Subconscious," 1915). Psych. Rev., July, 1915). Of the many investigations upon memory, three should be noted here. R. S. Woodworth ("The Influence on Retention of Conditions Favoring Quickness of Learning," Jour. of Philos., Psych. and Scientific Methods, April Abnormal Psychology.-There is a growing demand for psychological investigation in the field of criminology, and the courts of the large cities are beginning to employ psychologists to examine the prisoners. An article by V. V. Anderson of the Boston courts dence of such behavior. A description of the multiple choice method as devised by him may be found in the work done by him and his pupil, C. A. Coburn ("A Study of the Behavior of the Pig Sus Scrofa by the Multiple Choice Method," Jour. of Animal Behavior, May-June, 1915, and "A Study of the Behavior of the Crow Corvus Americanus Aud. by the Multiple Choice Method," ibid., March-April, 1915). One of the most important publications of the year is that of J. B. Watson and K. S. Lashley entitled "Homing and Related Activities of Birds" (Papers Dept. Marine Biology, Carnegie Inst., vii, 1915). Productive studies in the color vision of birds and animals are being continued at Johns Hopkins University. The present tendency in animal psychology is to devise and refine methods. This will be seen in the has appeared under the title, "The multiple choice and supplementary Laboratory in the Study and Treat- methods. He discovered ample eviment of Crime" (Jour. of Criminal Law and Criminology, March, 1915). C. S. Rossy has also a report of work on delinquents in Bulletin No. 13 of the Massachusetts State Board of Insanity. W. Healy of the Chicago courts has published a book entitled The Individual Delinquent-A TextBook of Diagnosis and Prognosis for All Concerned in Understanding Of fenders (Little, Brown). Much attention is being given to the development of adequate tests. Instead of the former method of applying the Binet tests, R. M. Yerkes and his coworkers, acting upon the suggestion of the late E. B. Huey, propose giving credit according to the merit of the responses of the subject. A description of their method and results is to be found in their book, A Point Scale for Measuring Mental Ability (Warwick & York). T. H. Haines has made a comparison of the point scale and the Binet tests ("Point Scale numerous problems with the maze, Ratings of Delinquent Boys and Girls," Psych. Rev., March, 1915). Although there is an increasing application of the Freudian method of psycho-analysis to mental diseases, there is much criticism of the extreme form of the movement. R. Bellamy by a reductio ad absurdum argument shows how very possible it is for a seemingly plausible interpretation of a dream to be false ("An Act of Everyday Life Treated as a Pretended Dream and Interpreted by Psychoanalysis," Jour. of Abnormal Psych., April-May, 1915). G. Stanley Hall, in "Anger as a Primary Emotion and the Application of Freudian Mechanisms to Its Phenomena" (ibid., June-July, 1915), points out that this movement opens up a much larger field than that of sex. Animal Psychology. It is generally agreed that the greatest need at present is adequate provision for the study of the monkey and the anthropoid ape. R. M. Yerkes, having made a trip to the Pacific Coast in order to find a suitable climate in which to keep and breed the ape, concludes that this can be done anywhere south of Santa Barbara. While there he made a study of the ideational behavior of the anthropoid ape based upon the especially the series of researches by S. B. Vincent appearing in the Journal of Animal Behavior. W. T. Shephard has put dogs and cats to the same tests as monkeys and has found that their adaptive intelligence is much below that of the monkeys ("Tests on Adaptive Intelligence in Dogs and Cats, as Compared with Adaptive Intelligence in Rhesus Monkeys," Am. Jour. of Psych., April, 1915). Applied Psychology.-A glance at the Journal of Educational Psychology will show that the principal attention is devoted to methods of grading work and measuring efficiency, especially in spelling and writing. Psychologists are particularly interested in devising tests. In W. A. McCall's paper, "Preliminary Report of an Experiment to Determine the Effect of Air Conditions upon the Accuracy of Judgments of Intellectual Products" (Jour. of Philos., Psych., and Scientific Methods, April 29, 1915) is a description of some of the work carried on by the New York State Commission on Ventilation. It was shown that although hot, humid conditions affected the comfort of the subjects, the accuracy of judgment did not seem impaired. The principles of psychology essential for business are the psychology of advertising we to be found in Hugo Münsterberg's Business Psychology (La Salle Extension University). Among papers on may cite H. F. Adams, "The Adequacy of the Laboratory Test in Advertising" (Psych. Rev., Sept., 1915). PHILOSOPHY RALPH BARTON PERRY General Philosophy.-The war has affected in many ways the course of events in the philosophical world. The fifth International Congress of Philosophy was to have been held in London in September, 1915. The programme had been completed and the attendance of many scholars from America and from Continental Europe was assured. The Congress was abandoned with a feeling of deep regret that old ties must be broken. Happily the war has led to the forming of new associations as well as the breaking of old. Prof. Maurice De Wulf of the University of Louvain, in exile since the violation of Belgium, is spending four months at Harvard, where he is lecturing on scholastic philosophy. He is one of the most distinguished of living scholars in a field which has hitherto been seriously neglected in American colleges not under Roman Catholic control. The prominence recently given to German Kultur and ideals has led to fresh interpretations of German philosophy. In his German Philosophy and Politics (Holt) Prof. John Dewey traces the connection between the present militaristic and nationalistic tendencies in German politics and the absolutism and a priori character of the traditional German philosophy. He pleads for an American policy that shall be based on an experimental philosophy. J. H. Muirhead, on the other hand, in his German Philosophy in Relation to the War (Murray), insists that the ideas at present dominant in Germany are not idealistic but materialistic, and are due not to the influence but to a falsification of the great masters Kant and Hegel. The widespread tendency to trace the teachings of Bernhardi and Treitschke to the influence of Nietzsche is combated by W. M. Salter in a scholarly article entitled "Nietzsche's Superman" (Jour. of Philos., Aug. 5, 1915). Attention is called to Nietzsche's contempt for war, and his emphasis upon spiritual as opposed to merely physical qualities. In his Evolution and the War (Dutton), P. Chalmers Mitchell attacks the Darwinian theory as applied to national life, and insists that man introduces wholly new factors into life that make the conceptions of struggle and survival insufficient. The work of Bertrand Russell continues to receive much attention in English-speaking countries. On June 2, Mr. Russell was awarded the Nicholas Murray Butler Gold Medal for "the most distinguished contribution to philosophy or education anywhere in the world during the last five years." The committee making the award were "of the opinion that the type of logical studies represented in the work of the Hon. Bertrand Russell has been the distinctively determining philosophical interest during the period under consideration." The interest in his strictly logical studies (see infra) is exceeded only by that taken in his theory of knowledge as represented by his work entitled Our Knowledge of the External World (A. Y. B., 1914, p. 677). To this interesting union of the technique of mathematical logic with an empirical analysis of the data of immediate sense-experience, Mr. Russell has made important contributions during the year, in three articles contributed to the Monist. The first, on "Sensation and Imagination" (Jan.), seeks to find the distinction between these two forms of experience in a difference of time-relation, the object of sense being simultaneous with the act of sensing, the object of imagination having no time-relation to the subject. The second article, "On the Experience of Time" (April), distinguishes and defines simultaneity, succession, immediate memory, time-relations on the object side, and timerelations between subject and object. In "The Ultimate Constituents of Matter" (July), Mr. Russell reduces |