enthusiasm and keeping office. As the days passed by, it became evident that further delay would cost Bulgaria dear. On August 15 the Turkish troops crossed the Maritza river and occupied western Thrace, though the Porte had hitherto been willing to accept the Maritza as the boundary. The Bulgarian hope of a European intervention began to fade. The Turks were soon able to convince the Bulgarian government that most of the great powers were willing to acquiesce in the retention of Adrianople by the Turks in return for economic and political concessions to themselves. There was nothing for Bulgaria to do but yield, and on September 3 General Savoff and M. Tontcheff started for Constantinople to treat with the Turkish government for a new boundary line. They pleaded for the Maritza as the boundary between the two states, the possession of the west bank being essential for railway connection between Bulgaria and Dédéagatch, her only port on the Ægean. But this plea came in conflict with the determination of the Turks to keep a sufficient strategic area around Adrianople. Hence the Turks demanded and secured a considerable district on the west bank, including the important town of Dimotika. By the preliminary agreement signed on September 18 the boundary starts at the mouth of the Maritza river, goes up the river to Mandra, then west around Dimotika almost to Mustafa Pasha. On the north the line starts at Sveti Stefan and runs west so that Kirk Killise is retained by Turkey.

While the Balkan belligerents were settling upon terms of peace among themselves, the conference of ambassadors at London was trying to bring the settlement of the Albanian problem to a conclusion. On August II the conference agreed that an international commission of control, consisting of a representative of each of the great powers, should administer the affairs of Albania until the powers should select a prince as ruler of the autonomous state. The conference also decided to establish a gendarmerie under the command of military officers selected from one of the small neutral states of Europe. At the same time the conference agreed upon the southern boundary of Albania. The line was to be drawn from a point south of Cape Stylos to Lake Ochrida in such a way as to place the

Kaza of Koritza in Albania. This line was a compromise between that demanded by Greece and that demanded by AustriaHungary and Italy. Unfortunately it was agreed that the international boundary commission which was to be appointed should in drawing the line be guided mainly by the nationality of the inhabitants of the districts through which it would pass. At once Greeks and Albanians began a campaign of nationalization in the disputed territory which resulted in sanguinary conflicts. Unrest soon spread throughout the whole of Albania. On August 17 a committee of Malissori chiefs visited Admiral Burney, who was in command at Scutari of the marines from the international fleet, to notify him that the Malissori would never agree to incorporation in Montenegro. They proceeded to make good their threat by capturing the important town of Dibra and driving the Servians from the neighborhood of Djakova and Prizrend. Since then the greater part of northand southern Albania has been practically in a state of anarchy.

The settlement of the Balkans described in this article will probably last for at least a generation, not because all the parties to the settlement are content, but because it will take at least a generation for the dissatisfied states to recuperate. Bulgaria is in far worse condition than she was before the war with Turkey. The second Balkan war, caused by her policy of greed and arrogance, destroyed 100,000 of the flower of her manhood, lost her all of Macedonia and eastern Thrace, and increased her expenses enormously. Her total gains, whether from Turkey or from her former allies, were but eighty miles of seaboard on the Ægean, with a Thracian hinterland woefully depopulated. Even railway communication with her one new port of Dédéagatch has been denied her. Bulgaria is in despair, but full of hate. However, with a reduced population and a bankrupt treasury, she will need many years to recuperate before she can hope to upset the new arrangement. And it will be hard even to attempt that; for the status quo is founded upon the principle of a balance of power in the Balkan peninsula; and Rumania has definitely announced herself as a Balkan power. Servia, and more particularly Greece, have made acquisitions beyond their

wildest dreams at the beginning of the war and have now become strong adherents of the policy of equilibrium.

The future of the Turks is in Asia, and Turkey in Asia just now is in a most unhappy condition. Syria, Armenia and Arabia are demanding autonomy; and the former respect of the other Moslems for the governing race, i. e., the Turks, has received a severe blow. Whether Turkey can pull itself together, consolidate its resources and develop the immense possibilities of its Asiatic possessions remains of course to be seen. But it will have no power and probably no desire to upset the new arrangement in the Balkans.

The settlement is probably a landmark in Balkan history in that it brings to a close the period of tutelage exercised by the great powers over the Christian states of the Balkans. Neither Austria-Hungary nor Russia emerges from the ordeal with prestige. The pan-Slavic idea has received a distinct rebuff. To Rumania and Greece, another non-Slavic state, i. e. Albania, has been added; and in no part of the peninsula is Russia so detested as in Bulgaria which unreasonably protests that Russia betrayed her. "Call us Huns, Turks or Tartars but not Slavs." Twice the Austro-Hungarians in their anxiety to maintain the balance of power in the Balkans, made the mistake of backing the wrong combatant. In the first war they upheld Turkey; and in the second, they favored Bulgaria. In encouraging Bulgarian aggression they estranged Rumania, the faithful friend of a generation and Bulgaria won only debt and disgrace. Yet Austria-Hungary must now continue to support Bulgaria as a counterpoise to a stronger Servia which they consider a menace to their security because of Servian influence on their southern Slavs. The Balkan states will manage their own affairs in the future but they will still offer abundant opportunity for the play of Russian and Austro-Hungarian rivalry. It had been hoped that the Balkan peninsula, when freed from the incubus of Turkish misrule, would settle down to a period of general tranquillity. Instead of this the ejectment of the Turk has resulted in increased bitterness and more dangerous hate. STEPHEN P. DUGGAN.

COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK.

TH

THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

HE office of adelantado was one of the oldest conferred in mediæval Spain. "In the history of San Pedro de Arlança it is said that Nuño Nuñez, judge of Castile, married Theudia, daughter of Theudio, adelantado of León.” * This statement carries the title back to the tenth century. More definitely it is known that Fernan Fernandez was adelantado of Estremadura in the time of Alfonzo VIII, the Good (1158-1214). The first mention of the office in Spanish legislation is found in the time of Ferdinand III (1217–1252), but it is not until the reign of his successor, Alfonzo X, the Learned (1252-1275), that the nature, qualifications and functions of the adelantado were set forth in legal terms. They appear in the two general codes, El Espéculo and Las Siete Partidas,3 as well as in a special code entitled, Leyes para los Adelantados Mayores. During the succeeding reigns, as occasion demanded, modifications and additions were made to this early legislation.5

2

There were two kinds of adelantados. The adelantado del rey, de corte or mayor was a more immediate representative of the king, while the adelantado de comarca, fronterizo or menor was the more common type. Although of great importance, the former office seems early to have fallen into disuse, its functions passing to other high officials, since all mention of it is omitted from the later codifications.

1 Salazar, Origen de las dignidades seglares, fol. 60 b. Libro 4, título 2, ley 11.

Partida 2, título 9, ley 19.

The several codes may be found in convenient form, reprinted in full, in Los Códigos Españoles, edited by San Martín in twelve volumes. There is a very satisfactory introduction to each code. Martínez Alcubilla, Códigos de España, is a onevolume work of no especial merit. It contains only a brief note on the Espéculo. For a summary in English of Las Partidas and El Espéculo, see Walton, Civil Law in Spain and Spanish America, pp. 72, 75-77.

'Ordenamiento Real (1346), lib. 2, tít. 13; Nueva Recopilación (1681), lib. 3,

tit. 4.

According to the provisions of the earlier codes, the adelantado mayor was preeminently a judicial officer, occupying the highest rank in the judicial system as it was then established.' The name of the office was derived from the fact that the subject was put forward into the king's place. Because of the many complaints about the decisions of the lower judges, the king was naturally unable to hear all the appeals that were brought to him; and he accordingly appointed a supreme judge, who was called the adelantado mayor and who should act in his stead. The original jurisdiction of this officer extended even to controversies between nobles (rieptos), which might lead to wager of battle. His appellate power included all cases subject to appeal from the lower judges.*

The incumbent of so responsible a position was to be a man not only of noble family (de grand linaje) and loyalty, but also of prudence and wisdom. Besides these characteristics, he must possess the general qualifications prescribed for the judges of the realm. According to the law the judge had to be of good family (de buen linaje), in order that he might be ashamed to make any mistakes in his judgments. He should be a man of clear intelligence, so as to understand the arguments presented by the lawyers, capable of avoiding all undue influence and of judging rightly. He should be able to read and write, that he might himself examine all papers, documents and petitions which might be presented. He should be even-tempered, so as not to complain or become irritated at the accusations of the parties. Finally, he should render exact justice to every one.5

The purpose of the brief code of five laws, known as Leyes para los Adelantados Mayores, was to "establish the rules of conduct to which the said functionaries should conform them

1 For a discussion of the judicial system of Spain in this period, see Danvila, El Poder Civil en España, vol. i, p. 175.

2" El Rey lo adelanta, poniendolo el Rey en su lugar." The vague notions prevailing among writers on the Spanish dominion in America as to the meaning of the term is illustrated by Lowery's definition: “Adelantado, a title derived from the verb adelantar, which signifies to advance, to keep on, to surpass.' The Spanish Settlements in the United States, 1513-1561, p. 135.

3 Partida 2, título 9, ley 19.

Partida 2, título 9, ley 18.

4 El Espéculo, libro 4, título 2, ley 11.