extending north beyond the Columbia. Along the coast the Spaniards have established some missions, and formed some settlements of whites. The former are now rapidly declining. There are twenty-one establishments, containing about 7000 converts. They are often forced to join the missions, but they are kindly treated, and well fed; they are, however, not allowed to leave the settlements, and the surplus of their labour belongs to the missionaries; the missions have about 300,000 head of cattle. The climate is temperate and healthful, the land is well watered and well wooded, and much of it is tolerably productive. The coast has some excellent harbours, among which is that of St. Francisco, which affords perfect security to ships of any burthen, with plentiful supplies of fresh beef, vegetables, wood, and fresh water. The exports are hides, tallow, manteca, and horses, to the Sandwich islands, grain to the Russian establishments at Sitka and Kodiak, and provisions sold to whale-ships. The imports are salt, deal-boards, furniture, drygoods, and silks. On the east of the coast chain abovementioned, and extending to the Colorado and the Rocky Mountains, is a vast sandy plain, about 100 miles in width in its southern part, and 200 in the northern, by 700 in length, consisting of a bare, arid surface, with some isolated mountains interspersed here and there over its dreary bosom.

GUATEMALA,

OR UNITED STATES OF CENTRAL AMERICA.

THE republic of Guatemala, or Guatimala, occupying the narrow tract between the two great masses of the continent, has, in virtue of its position, assumed the title of the United States of Central America.

Guatemala is bounded on the south-east by the republic of New Grenada; on the north and north-east by the Mexican States, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the south and south-west by the Pacific Ocean. Measured by an oblique line from one extremity to the other, it may be 1050 miles in length; but the breadth, from sea to sea, nowhere exceeds 500, and in some places is only 100 miles. The surface has been estimated at 200,000 square miles, which, though it appears small when compared with the other American states, is nearly double the whole extent of the British Islands.

The surface of Guatemala does not display that lofty and rugged character which generally marks the neighbouring portions of the American continent. The chain of the Andes, which raises such a tremendous snowy barrier through the greater part of the continent, sinks in the isthmus of Panama into a mere rocky dike, connecting North and South America. Near Nicaragua, it seems to become little more than an insensible ridge, sloping down to the shores of the opposite oceans. Proceeding north-west, it soon rises and presents to the Pacific a lofty range, in which are twenty-one volcanoes, partly burning and partly extinct. The loftiest, called the volcano of Guatemala, being covered with snow for several months in the year, cannot be much less than 10,000 feet high. Hence Guatemala, though it does not present a continuous table-land, like Mexico, has high mountain valleys, enjoying a cool and agreeable air, and producing the grain and the fruits of the temperate zone. The eastern part, swelling somewhat into the form of a peninsula, and known by the name of Mosquitia, or the Mosquito shore, consists of a vast and savage forest, beat by the burning rays of the sun, and occupied by rude and unsubdued Indians.

The waters which descend from the Andes of Guatemala fall into one or other of the opposite oceans, and do not swell into rivers of any importance; but there is one grand aqueous feature, the Lake of Nicaragua, 150 miles in length, and 60 in breadth, and having almost throughout a depth of ten fathoms. Numerous streams, flowing from different quarters, form this great body of water, which has only one outlet in the river San Juan, which flows from it into the Atlantic. The surface of the lake is diversified and adorned with small islands, in one of which is a volcanic mountain. It communicates by a navigable channel of 26 miles,

with a smaller lake, called the Lake of Leon, which may almost be considered as a branch of it, and is 50 miles long by 30 broad.

The productive qualities of Guatemala are, if possible, superior even to those of other countries in the fruitful climates of America. Like Mexico, it yields in different regions, and at small distances from each other, all the varieties of fruit and grain peculiar to the tropical and temperate zones. Of fruits, several of the most valuable are produced in the highest perfection. The indigo, which forms so large a part of the commerce of Mexico, is almost entirely Guatemalan. The cacao of Soconusco is said to be the very finest in the world, though it is cultivated on too small a scale to enter much into the market of Europe. Vanilla, however, the other ingredient of chocolate, is procured to a great extent from this quarter. Sugar, cotton, cochineal, mahogany, and dye-woods, are also exported. There are manufactures of cotton and porcelain, some of them fine, but only for internal consumption; and the fabrics in wrought gold and silver are said to possess great merit. As to commerce, Guatemala labours under the disadvantage of not having on either ocean a port capable of receiving large ships; and its commodities have to bear a heavy land-carriage, and a coasting voyage, before they arrive at Vera Cruz.

Guatemala abounds in mines, particularly of silver; some of which have been undertaken by an English company, in the expectation of their proving productive; but the result is yet uncertain.

Canals are naturally an undertaking beyond the infant resources of Guatemala; but one is in contemplation, which, if executed, will be the greatest and most important work of this kind on the globe. This is a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific, navigable for the largest vessels, so as to enable European vessels to reach China and parts of India by an easier and more direct course, thus causing an important revolution in the commercial world. It will, probably, be undertaken from the Lake of Nicaragua, which communicates with the Atlantic by the broad channel of the San Juan, and is separated from the Pacific by an interval of from sixteen to twenty miles in breadth, through which it seems certain that a good level could be found. To execute, therefore, a canal of the dimensions of the Caledonian, is, even at present, completely within the reach of human skill and resources. It is an undertaking indeed, which does not belong to the government within whose limits it is placed; and, though the capitalists of North America or Europe would find no difficulty in providing the funds, the political atmosphere of Central America is scarcely yet so settled, that they might look forward with full confidence to compensation for the large advances which would be necessary. The population cannot be considered as well ascertained. It does not fall short of 2,000,000. About one-half of the whole number are Indians, one-fifth whites, and three-tenths mixed races. There are no negroes in the country.

The government is federal republican in its form, being modelled on that of the United States. A federal congress, composed of a senate and house of representatives, chosen the latter by the people, the former by the states, and a president, also chosen by the popular vote, manage the general concerns of the confederacy. Each state has its respective legislature and executive chief for the administration of its domestic affairs.

The territory of the republic, together with the present Mexican state Chiapas, formed the Spanish captaincy-general of Guatemala until 1821, when it was incorporated with Mexico. On the fall of Iturbide, in 1824, it separated itself from the latter, and constituted itself an independent republic, under the title of the Federal Republic of Central America. The confederacy consists of five states, and a federal district, as follows.

Guatemala Proper is the central province, comprising the great chain of volcanic mountains, and the slope downwards from them to the sea. It is here that the great variety of climate and productions appears, and that the latter are in the highest perfection. What is strictly called the valley of Guatemala consists properly of nine valleys, of varying elevation, enclosed within the great circuit of volcanic mountains. In the centre of this range of valleys, at an elevation not precisely known, stands the old city of Santiago de Guatemala. It was erected first in 1527, at the foot of an enormous mountain, called the Volcano of Water (de Agua), and which too soon justified that title; for, a few years afterwards, an aqueous eruption burst forth, of the most formidable character, which overwhelmed the whole city, and buried in its ruins a great part of the inhabitants. Appalled by this disaster, the Spaniards removed the city to another situation in a beautiful and finely watered valley, which yielded in profusion all the necessaries and luxuries of life. A new town, also called Santiago de Guatemala, was here erected. But the site, with all its felicities, had terrible defects. It was liable to dreadful shocks of earthquake and volcanic eruptions, which rendered the existence of its inhabitants constantly insecure, and their fate often tragical. In the above succession of calamities, severe attacks of pestilence were interspersed. At length, in 1775, the series was consummated by a truly appalling earthquake, the shocks of which, continuing at intervals from June to December, reduced the city nearly to a heap of ruins. The Spanish government, on being advertised of this disaster, sent out instructions to remove to another site; but this, perhaps well-meant, order, being executed in an abrupt and despotic manner, only aggravated at first the miseries of the unfortunate city. New Guatemala was built in the valley of Mixco, in a situation not so fertile and beautiful, but extremely healthy, and exempt from the dreadful calamities of which the old city had been a victim. It was reared in the usual regular manner and with numerous squares; the houses are neat, though low, to mitigate the danger of earthquake; the churches and other public edifices on a smaller scale, but of very elegant design. The citizens, supposed to amount to 35,000, ply, with very considerable diligence, the trades of weaving, pottery, working in silver, and embroidery: its chief articles of trade are indigo and cacao. Öld Guatemala likewise has risen from its ashes, and a great proportion of its exiles have gradually found their way back to their former abode. Having attained a population of 18,000, it has been reinvested, not with the privileges of a city, but those of a town.

San Salvador, to the south, is the capital of the state of the same name, which contains above 300,000 people, and forms a very rich tract, yielding most of the indigo which is the staple of the kingdom. The capital, in a fine valley, contained, in 1778, a population of 12,000, chiefly employed in the indigo trade., A variety of volcanic movements desolate this province, while they present curious phenomena to the view of the observer.

The state of Nicaragua lies to the south of the preceding. The territory is rich in all the tropical fruits, but in none which belong to the temperate climes. It has, however, vast savannahs covered with numerous herds of cattle, which are sent even to the market of the capital. But the most prominent object in this province is the lake, and the chief interest excited by it is the projected oceanic canal; both of which have been already mentioned. Leon, or San Leon de Nicaragua, is a place of about 20,000 inhabitants, of whom about 1000 are Spaniards, with a college, which in 1812 was allowed by the Cortes to be converted into an university. It occupies an advantageous position on the northwestern shore of the lake of the same name, which communicates by its outlet with Lake Nicaragua. Fourteen leagues distant is the fine harbour of Realejo in the Pacific, separated only by a level country over which there is a good road. Nicaragua, on the lake of the same name, is a town of about 8000 inhabitants. Its port is San Juan, at the mouth of the navigable outlet of the lake.

Costa Rica, or the Rich Coast, to the south of Nicaragua, seems named ironically, being in a state of extreme and deplorable poverty. It is very capable, however, of yielding the common tropical products; but the inroads of the Buccaneers caused a desertion, from which it has never recovered. Cartago, how

ever, in the heart of the province, has a population of 20,000 persons, of whom 600 are, or were, Spaniards.

The eastern part of the republic consists of the state of Honduras, so named from the peninsula which separates it from Yucatan. The whole coast is flat, marshy, hot, and extremely unhealthy, though some parts of the interior rise into hilly and temperate tracts. This region is covered with thick forests containing the valuable trees of mahogany and logwood. The mahogany trees are very thinly scattered, and are cut down by gangs of negroes, preceded by what is called the finder, who mounts the tops of the highest trees, and spies out where a mahogany tree is to be found. The chief expense is in the conveyance to the coast. Turtle is found in abundance along this shore. Gold and silver mines are said to exist here, but none have ever been worked, or even found. Comayagua, called also Valladolid, is agreeably situated in the interior; but, though the nominal capital, it has never attained any great importance. Truxillo, and Cape Gracias, are more conspicuous places, but now also much decayed. Omoa, with a good harbour, has some trade. The cultivation of tobacco, and the rearing of cattle, form the principal occupations of the inhabitants of Honduras.

THE WEST INDIES.

THE WEST INDIES consist of an archipelago of large and fine islands, situated in the wide interval of sea between North and South America. Their rich products, their high cultivation, and the very singular form of society existing in them, have rendered them in modern times peculiarly interesting.

These islands extend in a species of curved line, first east, and then south, beginning near the southern part of the United States, and terminating at the coast of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. On the east and north they are bounded by the Atlantic; on the south, the Caribbean sea separates them from the coast of Colombia; on the west, the broad expanse of the Gulf of Mexico is interposed between them and that part of the continent. The largest are those which extend from the Gulf of Mexico eastward; Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. Those which run from north to south are smaller; but many of them, as Barbadoes, Martinico, Guadaloupe, Trinidad, are very important from their fertility and high cultivation. This latter part of the group is frequently called the Windward Islands, from being exposed to the direct action of the trade winds, blowing across the Atlantic; they are named also the Antilles, and frequently the Caribbee Islands, from the name of the people, called Caribs, found there by the discoverers.

Mountains of considerable elevation diversify each of these islands, causing them to resemble the elevated remains of a portion of the continent, which some convulsion has overwhelmed. Generally speaking, the interior is composed of a range or group, sometimes of little more than a single mountain, the slopes of which, and the plain at its feet, constitute the island. The most elevated peaks of Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica, exceed 8000 feet; while the highest summits of the Windward Islands range from 3000 to 4000 feet. Most of these eminences have evidently been the seat of volcanic action; but this appears to have ceased in all of them, except the Soufrière of Guadaloupe, which still exhibits some faint indications of it.

The political relations of all these islands are subordinate to those of the mother-country to which they are subjected. In those belonging to Britain, the white proprietors are represented in houses of assembly, which exercise some of the functions of the British parliament. The limits between the two jurisdictions, however, have not been very precisely defined; and in several instances, particularly that of the treatment of the slaves, some rather serious collisions have taken place. Hayti forms an independent republic.

An uncommon measure of wealth and prosperity was for a long time enjoyed by these islands. They flourished especially during the last century, when they

supplied almost exclusively sugar, coffee, and other articles, the use of which had become general over the civilized world.

The export of sugar to Britain, during the year 1832, amounted to 3,585,188 cwts., which, at 28s. per cwt., amounts to 5,119,000l., and the duty, at 24s., was 4,352,000. The exportation of rum, in 1832, amounted to 4,753,789 gallons, the value of which, at 2s. 9d. a gallon, would be 753,6447. Of this amount, 3,513,000 gallons, retained in Britain for home consumption, paid a duty of 1,570,000l.

Coffee ranks next to sugar in importance. The importation into Britain, in 1832, amounted to 24,600,000 lbs., the value of which, at 6d. a pound, may be 685,7001. A few other articles, though very secondary to those above mentioned, are produced in these islands. Cotton was formerly considered one of their staples. In 1786, the produce was 5,800,000 lbs. ; and in 1828, it was almost the very same, or 5,890,000. In 1831 and 1832, it averaged only 1,950,000 lbs. The United States have supplanted the islands, both as to the abundance and quality of this commodity. Yet the cotton of the latter, though inferior to the best American, still maintains a respectable price in the market. Cacao, the principal material of chocolate, has also much declined, chiefly perhaps on account of that beverage being almost entirely disused in Britain. The average of 1831 and 1832 was 1,050,000 lbs.

Manufacturing industry, from the peculiar state of society in these islands, scarcely exists, even in its humblest form, for domestic use.

Commerce, on the contrary, is carried on to a much greater extent than in any other country of the same wealth and populousness. Almost every product of West Indian labour is destined for the market of the mother-country, from which, in return, these islands receive all their clothing, and a great proportion of their daily food. They supply the British empire with nearly all the sugar, rum, and coffee, consumed in it.

In 1832, the shipping employed in the trade between Britain and the West Indies was to the following amount:-Inwards, 828 ships, 229,117 tons, and 12,656 men. Outwards, 803 ships, 226,105 tons, and 12,804 men. The value of the imports in 1829 was 9,807,9141.; of the exports, 3,612,0751. The leading articles of import were sugar, rum, coffee, cotton, cacao, molasses, pimento, ginger, mahogany, logwood, fustic, indigo, cochineal, castor oil, sarsaparilla, and pepper.

The West Indies also carry on an extensive intercourse with the United States and the British colonies in North America, to which they send their staple productions, and receive, in return, grain, provisions, fish, and timber. The trade with the British colonies employed, in 1831, 486 ships, of 75,896 tons, with 5074 men, outwards. That from the United States, in the same year, employed 58,825 tons, of which more than two-thirds were American.

The population of the different portions of the West Indies has been ascertained with varying degrees of accuracy. The following is probably a near approximation of the whole :

Of these it is probable not above 500,000 are Europeans; the rest are of negro origin, and, unless in Hayti, the greater part of them are in a state of slavery. The social state of these islands is peculiar and painful. The population consists of three portions, between which scarcely any sympathy exists:-1. The whites; 2. the slaves; 3. the mixed population and emancipated negroes. On a subject which has excited so much interest, and given rise to so many controversies, some very general observations will be sufficient.

The whites, who form so small a part of the population, are the masters, in whom all the power and property centres. They consist partly of proprietors or planters superintending the cultivation of their own lands, partly of agents and