were seeking shelter from a pursuing enemy. The fortifications, particularly the Moro and Punta castles, are remarkably strong. The city presents a magnificent appearance from the sea, its numerous spires being intermingled with lofty and luxuriant trees. The churches are handsome and richly ornamented; and several private mansions are reckoned to be worth above 60,000l. each. The interior, however, for the most part consists of narrow, ill-paved, and dirty streets, crowded with merchandise and wagons, and presenting entirely the appearance of busy trade. Yet the alameda, or public walk, and the opera, on the appearance of a favourite performer, exhibit a gay and even splendid aspect. The recently constructed suburbs are also built in a superior style. The Havannah has patriotic and literary societies, which are improving. Seven journals are published, one of them in English. The population by the census of 1827 was 112,000, and has since considerably increased.

Matanzas, about sixty miles east of the capital, is pleasantly situated on a low plain not much above the level of the sea, and is now the second commercial town in the island. The harbour is capacious, easy of access, and sheltered from all winds, except those from the north-east, which are not dangerous here. The population of the place amounts to about 15,000. In 1830 it exported upwards of 50,000,000 lbs. of sugar, and nearly 8,000,000 lbs. of coffee; 220 vessels entered, and 304 left its port in that year. As the vicinity is rapidly becoming settled and brought under cultivation, its importance is daily increasing. Trinidad is one of the most populous and thriving places on the island, since the removal of the restrictions on its trade. It is well built, and standing on the southern shore, it is beyond the influence of the northers which are experienced on the other side of the island. Its harbour is capacious, but exposed, and its commerce considerable. Population 12,500. To the west lies Xagua, a small town, but having one of the best harbours in the world, formed by the magnificent bay of the same name.

Puerto Principe, situated in the interior, is a poor, dirty, and ill-built town, in a wet spot, which in many places is only passable on raised footpaths. Its inland trade is considerable. By the census it appears to have a population of 49,000 inhabitants. The little town of Nuevitas, lately founded on a bay of the same name on the northern coast, serves as its port.

In the eastern part of the island is Santiago de Cuba, once the capital of Cuba. It is one of the oldest and best built towns of the colony, and contains 26,740 inhabitants. Bayamo or San Salvador, an old town in the interior, has a population of 7500 souls. Its port is the thriving little commercial town of Manzanillo, with 3000 inhabitants. To the west is Holguin, with 8000 inhabitants, and at the eastern extremity of the island is Baracoa, now much reduced, but remarkable as the first settlement formed by the Spaniards on this beautiful island.

Porto Rico, or Puerto Rico, the smallest of the Great Antilles, is about 100 miles in length by 36 in mean breadth, and has a superficies of 4000 square miles. Although inferior to none of the islands in fertility and general importance, it was long neglected by Spain, and until the beginning of the present century its wealth was derived entirely from its woods and pastures. Porto Rico is traversed by a lofty mountain ridge, which in the eastern part rises to the height of about 4000 feet; on each side of this central ridge lie rich and beautiful valleys, well watered and well wooded, below which stretch the fertile plains that contain the thriving agricultural and commercial towns. The population in 1830 was 323,838; of this number only 34,240 were slaves, 127,287 were free coloured persons, and 162,311 whites. The law makes no distinction between the white and the coloured classes, and the whites are in the habit of intermixing freely with the people of colour.

The exports are sugar and coffee, with cattle, tobacco, rum, cotton, &c.; the imports are the same as those of Cuba. The annual value of the imports is about 3,000,000 dollars, of exports 4,000,000, two-thirds of which are in American bottoms; of 58,526 tons, the tonnage arrived in 1830, 29,906 was American, and 15,163 Spanish.

The Capital, Puerto Rico, or San Juan, is a large, neat, and well-built town on the northern coast, with a deep, safe, and capacious harbour. It is very strongly fortified, and contains about 30,000 inhabitants. The other towns are small;

Mayague and Aguadilla on the west coast, Ponce and Guayama on the southern, and Faxardo, are the principal ports. The little island of Bieque, or Crab Island, lying off the eastern coast, is claimed by Great Britain.

French Islands.

The possessions of France in the West Indies, previous to the revolutionary war, were more valuable than those of any other nation. The exports from St. Domingo alone amounted to 25,000,000 dollars. That valuable island is now entirely lost to her. During the late war all her islands were captured, and she ceased to exist as a colonial power. At the peace, Martinico and Guadaloupe were restored.

Martinico, or Martinique, is a large and fine island, about fifty miles in length and sixteen in breadth. The surface is generally broken into hillocks, and in the centre rise three lofty mountains, the streams descending from which copiously water the island. The census of 1827 was 101,905, of which 9937 were whites, 10,786 free coloured, and 81,182 slaves. The annual imports from France amount to about 12,000,000 francs; the exports to that country, to 20,000,000. Fort Royal, the capital and the seat of the courts of justice, is a well-built town, with 7000 inhabitants; but the chief trade centres in St. Pierre, the largest place in Martinico and in all French America. Its excellent road has rendered it an entrepôt for the trade of the mother-country with this quarter of the world. It has about 20,000 inhabitants.

Guadaloupe is from fifty to sixty miles long and twenty-five broad. It consists, in fact, of two islands, since a channel, from thirty to eighty yards broad, crosses the narrow isthmus by which its eastern and western portions are united. The western, called Basseterre, notwithstanding the name (which is derived from its position with regard to the trade-wind,) contains a chain of lofty and rugged mountains, one of which displays some volcanic phenomena, emitting volumes of smoke, with occasional sparks of fire. However, its plains are copiously watered and fruitful. The eastern division, called Grande Terre, is more flat, and labours under a deficiency of water. In 1827 the population was 135,516, of which 17,237 were whites, 16,705 free coloured, 101,564 slaves. Annual value of the exports, 26,650,000 francs; of the imports, 12,000,000. Basseterre, on the part of the island bearing that name, ranks as the capital; but having a bad harbour, is supported merely by the residence of government, and has not more than 9000 inhabitants. Pointe-à-Pitre, on the eastern side, or rather at the junction of the two, carries on almost all the trade, and has a population of about 15,000. The islands of Marie-Galante, the Saintes, and Deseada, are appendages to Guadaloupe, of little importance.

Dutch, Swedish, and Danish Islands.

The possessions of the Dutch in the West Indies, when compared with their eastern colonial empire, appear exceedingly limited. Their only islands are St. Eustatia, Saba, and Curacoa. The first two are small isles lying immediately north of St. Christopher's.

St. Eustatia is cultivated with great care, and abounds particularly with tobacco; also in cattle and poultry, of which it affords a surplus to the neighbouring islands. The capital is well fortified, and forms a species of entrepôt both of regular and contraband trade. The population of the island is estimated at 20,000; that of the town at 6000. Saba, only twelve miles in circuit, and destitute of a harbour, is a pleasant island, but of no commercial value. The Dutch participate with France the small island of St. Martin, valuable almost solely for its salt-works. Curacoa is a larger island, far to the west of the others, and only about seventy miles distant from the Spanish main. It is about thirty miles long, and ten broad; but the greater part of its surface is arid and unfertile, and its importance was chiefly derived from the contraband trade which its situation enabled it to carry on, while the continent was exclusively possessed by Spain, and studiously shut against the vessels of other countries. Since Colombia became independent, and threw open her ports to all nations, Curacoa has sunk into a secondary station.

Williamstadt, its capital, however, with a fine harbour, has still a considerable trade, and a population of 8000.

The Danes have three small islands in the West Indies. St. Croix, or Santa Cruz, the principal one, lies to the south of the Virgin Islands: it has a surface of eighty-one square miles, and a population of about 34,000, all slaves, except 2500 whites and 1200 free coloured. It is productive, in proportion to its extent, in the usual West Indian articles. Christiansted, the capital, has 5000 inhabitants. St. Thomas, one of the Virgin Islands, is of little importance, unless as a favourable station for introducing into the other islands those goods which the great states have declared contraband. St. Thomas, the capital, with an active trade and 3000 inhabitants, contains about half of the population of the island. St. John's, another of the same group, is very small, and only noted for its excellent harbour. The Swedes have only one small island, St. Bartholomew, situated about fifty miles north of St. Christopher's. It is not quite twenty-five square miles in extent, and is generally described as fertile and well cultivated, though an eyewitness assures us that neither of these characters can apply to it. Gustavia, the capital, acquired considerable wealth during the war, when it continued long to be almost the only neutral port in these seas.

Hayti.

Hayti, now an independent negro republic, forms one of the most peculiar and interesting portions of the New World. It is a very fine island, situated between Jamaica and Porto Rico, about 450 miles in length, and 110 in breadth, and having an area of 28,000 square miles. In the centre rises the lofty range of the mountains of Cibao, of which the peak of La Serrania rises to the height of 9000, and that of La Sella to 7000 feet. These mountains are covered nearly to the summit with vegetation and noble woods, and from them descend numerous streams, which, uniting in four large rivers, bestow extreme fertility on the plains beneath. The principal productions of the island are, in the west and south, coffee, the sugar-cane (which is chiefly employed in the making of taffia, the ordinary rum of the country), and cotton; in the north, coffee, the splendid sugar estates about the Cape having been mostly abandoned or converted to other uses; in the east, cattle with some tobacco. Mahogany and Campeachy wood, Lignumvitæ, Braziletto, honey, wax, and fruits, are also important articles of production. The French revolution caused an extraordinary change in the state of Hayti. In 1791 the Assembly caused to be proclaimed throughout the island their favourite doctrine, that all men were free and equal. This proclamation gave rise, in the first instance, to a contest between the white and the free coloured population. But while these parties were contending for the application of the principle, the slaves felt that it applied also to them. They rose in a body, massacred or drove out the other two classes, and became entire masters of French St. Domingo. This revolution, with the excesses which accompanied it, soon ended, like other revolutions, in a military despotism, which was established in 1806 by Dessalines, who assumed the title of James I. He was succeeded by Christophe, his second in command, who named himself Henry I., hereditary king of Hayti. Meantime, however, the republic of Hayti was established in another part of the island, under the presidency, first of Pétion, and then of Boyer. Henry, harassed by attacks from this and other quarters, ended his life by suicide in 1820. Boyer then, by a series of vigorous operations, not only extended his sway over all the French part of the island, but annexed to it also that belonging to Spain (1822); so that the whole is now comprehended in the republic of Hayti. France in 1803 made strong efforts to regain this valuable island, but without success. length, on the 17th of April, 1825, a treaty was concluded, by which she acknowledged the independence of Hayti, on condition of receiving the large sum of 150,000,000 francs, to be paid in five annual instalments.

At

An independent negro state was thus established in Hayti; but the people have not derived all the benefits which they sanguinely expected. Released from their former compulsory toil, they have not yet learned to subject themselves to the restraints of regular industry. The first absolute rulers made the

most extraordinary efforts to overcome the indolence which soon began to display itself. The Code Rural directed that the labourer should fix himself on a certain estate, which he was never afterwards to quit without a passport from the government. His hours of labour and rest were fixed by statute. The whip, at first permitted, was ultimately prohibited; but as every military officer was allowed to chastise with a thick cane, and almost every proprietor held a commission, the labourer was not much relieved. By these means, the produce of 1806 was raised to about a third of that of 1789. But such violent regulations could not continue to be enforced amid the succeeding agitations, and under a republican régime. Almost all traces of laborious culture were soon obliterated: large tracts, which had been one entire sugar-garden, presented now only a few scattered plantations. The export of sugar, which in 1806 had been 47,516,531 lbs., amounted in 1825 to 2020 lbs. Coffee, which continued to be a staple production, was also much diminished. The only indemnification which the people sought was in the easy task of cutting down the forests of mahogany and campeachy wood, which were found of greater value than had been supposed. Within the last few years, a considerable increase has taken place in the exports of coffee, cotton, mahogany, tobacco, and other articles.

The population of Hayti is probably not less than 800,000. The value of the exports, in 1832, was $3,800,000; of imports, $4,160,000; entered, 350 ships of 48,398 tons; left, 336 ships of 46,146 tons; the number of American vessels much exceeding those trading under any other flag. The great article of export was coffee to the amount of 42,476,800 lbs., and the value of $3,326,000; other articles were mahogany and campeachy wood of the value of $400,000; cotton, $124,000; tobacco, $65,000, &c. The imports are flour, salt provisions, lumber, &c., from the United States; cotton goods and other manufactured articles, from Great Britain, the United States, France, and Germany; wines, jewellery, &c., from France.

The government of Hayti is professedly republican, but it has been well described as practically a military democracy. The chief executive officer is the President, who holds the place for life. There is a Senate, consisting of 24 members, named for life by the House of Representatives from a list of candidates presented by the President. The Representatives are chosen for the term of six years by the parishes, but the body of the people takes but little interest in the elections. The President proposes the laws and financial arrangements, which are acceded to with little discussion. The revenue of the state is about $1,500,000; the expenditure is considerably more. The army amounts to 45,000 men. The religion of the Haytians is Roman Catholic, but there is little attention paid to the subject, and the state of morals is described as exceedingly bad; other religions are tolerated. Whites are not allowed to hold landed property, or to carry arms.

Port au Prince, in the department of the West, is the capital, and the chief seat of trade. It has a secure and excellent roadstead, but the country around is marshy, and, during the summer, very unhealthy. The city is built mostly of wood, its streets unpaved, and containing no remarkable edifices. The population may be from 12,000 to 15,000. Petit Goave and Jaquemel are small towns in the same department, with good harbours and some trade. Cape Haytien, formerly Cape Français or Cape Henry, in the department of the North, the seat of the kingdom established by Christophe, is better built, with well-paved streets, and some handsome squares, and has a population of about 10,000. Near it is the citadel, constructed at vast expense on the top of a mountain, as a place of security for himself and his treasures.

Aux Cayes or Les Cayes, is a neat town, with a flourishing trade; but it was almost destroyed by a hurricane, in August, 1831. Jeremie is a place of considerable trade. Gonaives is a small town with a good harbour. St. Domingo, the capital of the Spanish part of the island, presents the remains of a very handsome city; a solid and spacious cathedral, a large arsenal, houses in general commodious and well built; but it has been long in a state of decay, and is not supposed to contain now above 10,000 inhabitants.

SOUTH AMERICA.

SOUTH AMERICA, which is comprised between the 12th degree of north and the 56th of south latitude, and which spreads in breadth from 36° to 81° W. lon., is inferior in dimensions to the northern portion of the continent, by almost 1,000,000 square miles. Its coast is also less indented by large bays, but it presents the same tapering form to the south. Its greatest breadth, about six degrees south of the equator, is 3200 miles, and its length 4500.

In this vast country, rivers roll through an extent of 4000 miles, and are so broad that the eye cannot reach from one shore to the other. In one point, are seen mountain-summits above the clouds, white with snows that never melt; while their bases rear the banana and pine-apple. In a day, a man can pass through all climates, from that of the equator to that of Nova Zembla. In some places, volcanoes, too numerous to be classed, throw out smoke and flames. Still, in other places, are vast and deep forests abounding in all the grand flowering and gigantic vegetation of tropical climates, which spreads an immense extent, that has never yet resounded with the woodman's axe. Nature here shows herself alternately in unexampled magnificence, beauty, sublimity, power, and terror.

South America may be divided into five distinct physical regions. 1. The low country on the shores of the Pacific, about 4000 miles in length, and from 50 to 200 in breadth: the two extremities of this district are fertile, the middle a sandy desert. 2. The basin of the Orinoco, surrounded by the Andes and their branches, and consisting of extensive plains nearly destitute of wood, but covered with a high herbage during a part of the year. 3. The basin of the Amazon, a vast plain, with a rich soil and a humid climate, and exhibiting a surprising luxuriance of vegetation. 4. The great southern plain of the Pampas; in parts, dry and barren, and in parts, covered with a strong growth of weeds and wild grass. The high country of Brazil, eastward of the Parana and the Araguay, presenting alternate ridges and valleys, thickly covered with wood on the Atlantic slope.

5.

The most extensive in range, and, with one exception, the loftiest mountains on the globe, extend through this continent from its northern to its southern extremity, and impart to it a character of unequalled grandeur and magnificence. The principal chain of the Andes runs from north to south, at a distance from the shore of the Pacific Ocean, varying from one to two hundred miles, and appears to extend through the isthmus of Darien, and to be connected with the great western chain of North America. The elevation of the Andes is by no means uniform. In some places it rises to more than 20,000 feet, while in others it sinks to less than one half that height. The whole range seems to rest upon volcanic fires, and numerous peaks are constantly burning. These mountains send off several subordinate ridges; the principal and the most extensive is that which stretches along the northern coast of the continent towards the island of Trinidad, and is known as the chain of Venezuela: its highest summits are usually estimated at from 14,000 to 15,000 feet in height. The main ridge of the Andes commences at the isthmus of Darien, and, in its progress southward, shoots up, under the Equator, into the lofty summits of Chimborazo and Antisana, while it spreads terror by the tremendous volcanoes of Pinchincu and Catopaxi. On reaching the elevated regions of Bolivia, it forms a vast mass, amidst whose lofty peaks tower Mount Sorata, of 25,250, and Mount Illimani, of 24,350 feet elevation, surpassing in height all the other peaks of this great chain, and second only to the most elevated summits of the Himmaleh Mountains. Passing onward between Buenos Ayres and Chili, the Andes preserve this elevation very little diminished; but toward the most southern extreme, they fall gradually to less than one-fourth of their greatest height, and assume an aspect dreary and desolate, in correspondence with the wintry severity of the climate. The principal ridge generally rises abruptly, with numerous and frightful precipices, hiding its lofty summits in the clouds, or rising with awful majesty into the pure regions of the air above them.