tracted and glorious struggle for independence, and partly during the period that Holland was connected with France. It has been settled that Holland should assume six-thirteenths of the Netherlandish debt, and Belgium the remaining seven; but the latter has not hitherto paid any part of the interest. The expenditure of the Dutch kingdom in 1833 was 49,385,849 florins, exclusive of 44,000,000 for extraordinaries on account of the war establishments. The former sum includes the interest on the whole debt, amounting to 21,621,484 florins.

The Dutch school of painting has been eminently successful in a low sphere. Under Rembrandt and his disciples, subjects of common life and vulgar humour were treated with a native force, which, being aided by brilliant effects of light and shade, have rendered this school exceedingly popular, though it has failed in all attempts at high and heroic delineation.

Amsterdam, the capital, one of the largest cities in Europe, stands on an arm of the Zuyder Zee called the River Y. The whole city is built upon piles driven into the ground. It is in the form of a crescent, and is intersected by the river Amstel, and a great number of canals, over which there are 280 bridges of stone and wood. Many of the canals are bordered with trees and afford pleasant views, but the stagnant water they contain infects the air. The houses and streets are kept remarkably clean. The Stadthouse is the most splendid building in Holland. It rests upon a foundation of 13,659 oaken piles, and is built of freestone, with a front of 282 feet; its interior is adorned with marble, jasper, statues, paintings, and other costly ornaments, and the whole edifice was completed at a cost of 9,000,000 dollars. There is an elegant bridge over the Amstel, 600 feet in length. The churches are not remarkable for architectural beauty. Amsterdam is a place of great commerce, although much declined from its former wealth and activity. The harbour is spacious, but only light vessels can enter. It has many establishments for literature, the arts, and charitable purposes, with various manufactures. Population, 201,000.

Haarlem, on the sea or lake of that name, has many fine buildings, and the largest church in Holland: the organ of this church is the largest in the world, having 8000 pipes, some of them 38 feet in length. This city has many manufactures, and claims the invention of printing. The inhabitants show the house of Lawrence Koster the inventor. Population, 18,000. Utrecht, on the Rhine, is a place of great antiquity, and has a famous university. It exhibits the ruins of a fine cathedral. Population, 34,000.

Rotterdam is the second commercial city in the kingdom, and by its deep canals will admit the largest vessels to the doors of its warehouses. The style of Dutch architecture is more particularly striking in this city. The houses are very high, with projecting stories; they are built of very small bricks, and have large windows. This was the birth-place of Erasmus, and on the bank of one of the canals stands his statue in bronze. Population, 63,000.

The Hague was once the seat of government, although possessing only the name of a village. The magnificence of its edifices and the general neatness of the city, strike the attention of every visiter. The streets are regular, and paved with light-coloured bricks. Population, 45,000. Leyden, four miles from the sea, stands on the ancient bed of the Rhine. It has the most magnificent church in Holland, and is famous for its university. Population, 29,000. Groningen has an university and many learned institutions. Population, 28,000. Nimeguen, on the Waal, has some manufactures and commerce. Population, 14,000. Middleburg, on the island of Walcheren, has a large Gothic town-house ornamented with statues. Population, 13,200. Breda, at the junction of the Aa and the Werck, is one of the strongest towns in Holland. It has a magnificent cathedral. Population, 9000. Dort or Dordrecht, on an island formed by the Maese and the Biesbosch, has a great trade in wood brought down the Rhine. Population, 17,387. Saardam, on the river Zaan, is a considerable town of wooden houses, almost all of which are painted green: it has considerable commerce and ship-building: almost every house is surrounded by water, and forms with its garden a small island.

BELGIUM.

THIS kingdom is bounded north by Holland, east by Germany, south-west by France, and north-west by the German Ocean. It extends from 49° 25' to 51° 30' N. lat., and from 2° 40' to 6° 30′ E. lon., and comprises 13,000 square miles.

The chief rivers are the Scheldt and Maese. The Scheldt rises in France and flows north-easterly into this country, where it turns to the north and north-west, and, dividing into several channels, falls into the German Ocean. Though not remarkable for length, it is a wide and deep river. Antwerp and Ghent are situated upon it. The Maese flows through the eastern part of the country from France to Holland.

The climate much resembles that of the south of England. In the interior the air is salubrious: but upon the coast of Flanders, and about the mouths of the Scheldt, the air is moist and unhealthy.

The soil, in general, is moderately fertile. In Luxemburg, Liege, and Namur, are considerable stony and unproductive tracts. Flanders abounds with excellent corn lands. In the south and south-eastern parts are mines of iron, lead, copper, and coal, and quarries of marble. The whole country is level, but somewhat less so than Holland. In the south are some hills of moderate height.

The canals in Belgium are spacious and commodious, connecting all the great cities, though not nearly in equal number, nor uniting every village, as in Holland. The agriculture of this country has been celebrated for more than 600 years: all travellers bestow high praise upon the skill and industry of the Flemish farmCorn, flax, barley, oats, madder, hops, and tobacco, are raised in great quantities. Pasturage is abundant; the clover and turnips support great numbers of cattle, principally cows.

ers.

Antwerp and Ostend enjoy some foreign trade; and in 1828, there entered at these ports 1529 vessels. The separation of Belgium from Holland has so far disturbed the regular operation of commerce, that it is impossible at present to estimate its amount.

Manufacturing industry is the branch in which the Belgic provinces formerly most excelled, and in which their decay has been most conspicuous. Three centuries ago, the linens and woollens of Ghent, Louvain, Brussels, and Mechlin, clothed the higher ranks in all the surrounding countries. Since that time, the fabrics of France and England have attained such an astonishing superiority, and are at once so cheap, and so well adapted to the taste of the age, that the Low Country manufacturers can with difficulty maintain their ground even in internal consumption. In cottons, especially, they are quite unable to withstand British competition. There are still, however, some fine linen fabrics, laces, lawns, cambrics, in which the manufacturers of Mechlin, Brussels, &c. continue unrivalled, and which, though so much superseded by muslin and Nottingham lace, still enjoy a certain demand throughout Europe. The fine laces have been sold for seventy or eighty Napoleons a yard. The Flemish breweries are also very extensive.

The manners and customs of the Belgians are somewhat similar to those of France; though in character they bear more resemblance to the Dutch; and have a national antipathy to them, and a preference for the French. They are no less industrious and persevering than the Dutch, and nearly as phlegmatic. The Flemish school of painting is distinguished by brilliant colouring, natural expression, and the wonderful effect of light and shade. It is, however, deficient in drawing. The great painters were Rubens, Teniers, and Vandyke.

The religion is Catholic, though there are some Protestants, whose ministers are supported by the government. The universities of Belgium, of which the most celebrated were Ghent and Louvain, were partially stripped of their ample endowments, first by Joseph II., and then by the French, who in their room substituted lyceums, which are now continued nearly on the same footing, under the name of colleges. Only the languages, and some general branches, are taught; education for professional purposes being received in separate appropriate seminaries. Ghent and Brussels have the highest reputation; but the salary of professors

in the former does not exceed 1500 francs. The three universities of Louvain, Liege, and Ghent, have lately been restored; and in 1827, the first was attended by 678 students; the second by 506; and the third by 404 students. Besides athenæums, which are only colleges on a smaller scale, there are primary schools in every village, by which the benefits of education are communicated to the lowest ranks. In 1832, there were 5229 primary schools in Belgium, with 370,996 pupils, beside 1318 in the athenæums, and 1788 in the universities. Annual expense, 743,200 francs.

The government of Belgium is a constitutional monarchy, with a Senate and House of Representatives, the members of which are elected by the people, the first for eight and the latter for four years. In 1833, the expenditure of the State was 73,000,000 francs, nearly three-fifths being absorbed by the military, which it has been necessary to keep on the War Establishment. Belgium is divided into eight provinces, the population of which, in 1833, was 3,791,000.

Brussels, the capital, stands on both sides of the little river Senne, flowing into the Scheldt. The city was formerly surrounded by a double wall and ditch, but these have been demolished, and the space formed into a handsome public walk planted with trees. The suburbs are extensive, and there are many neighbouring villages joined to the city by long avenues. The lower part of the town consists of narrow streets and old houses. The upper part is modern and regular, with fine buildings and a beautiful park laid out in large regular walks, shaded with trees and surrounded by palaces, public offices, and elegant private houses. Public fountains are interspersed throughout the city, and a large canal here leaves the river. The Hotel de Ville is remarkable for its exquisite gothic spire, which looks like the work of fairy hands. There are many fine squares and palaces, and in the Orange palace is a library of 100,000 volumes. Half a league from the city is the splendid palace of Schoonenburg. Brussels is distinguished for its manufactures of laces, carpets, tapestry, woollen and cotton cloths, silk stockings, gold and silver lace, and earthen ware. Population, 72,800.

Ghent stands at the confluence of three rivers with the Scheldt, and is 7 miles in compass, but contains within its walls many fields and unoccupied grounds. Many of its canals are bordered with quays planted with rows of trees. The houses are large, but heavy and inelegant: here is a fine Gothic cathedral with marble floors and pillars. Ghent has manufactures of fine lace, cotton, linen, woollen, silk, paper, and leather: the trade of the city has lately increased. Population, 81,941.

Antwerp, on the Scheldt, is a large and well-built city, surrounded by a wall with carriage roads on the top planted with rows of trees. The city is built in the form of a semicircle, and is intersected by canals. The cathedral is one of the finest gothic structures in the world, and its spire is unrivalled; it is 441 feet high, and deserves, according to the saying of Charles V., to be kept in a glass case and shown only on holidays. The Stadthouse and Exchange are noble edifices. The harbour is deep and capacious. In the height of its prosperity, Antwerp was one of the most flourishing and wealthy commercial cities in the world, and contained 200,000 inhabitants. Its commerce has greatly declined, and the city has a decayed and solitary appearance. The inhabitants carry on a few manufactures. Population, 65,000.

Liege, on the Maese, is divided into three parts by the river, and has extensive suburbs. The houses are high, and many of the streets narrow, crooked_and gloomy. Most of the inhabitants are engaged in manufactures and trade. Iron, coal, and alum, abound in the neighbourhood and afford occupation for all the industry of the place. The manufactures consist of iron, fire-arms, clock-work, nails, &c. Population, 45,300.

Bruges, 8 miles from the sea, stands in a fertile plain. It communicates with the sea and the towns in the interior by canals. Here are a college, an academy for painting, sculpture, and architecture, several literary societies, a public library of 6000 volumes, and a botanical garden. The manufacture of lace employs 6000 people, and there are 200 schools in which children are taught this art. The

town house is a superb gothic edifice; its steeple is furnished with chimes of bells which play a different tune every quarter of an hour. Population, 36,000.

Louvain is a large and ancient town with a famous university. Population, 18,580. Namur, at the confluence of the Maese and Sambre, is a well-built town: the houses are constructed of a blue stone with red and black veins. It has a citadel on the summit of a precipitous rock. Population, 15,000. Luxemburg is a strongly fortified city. Population, 9500. Spa is famous for its mineral springs situated in a valley surrounded by steep woody hills: it has also some manufactures. Gemappes and Waterloo are celebrated for the battles fought in their neighbourhood. Ostend, a few miles west of Bruges, is one of the most important seaports in the country: regular packets sail from this place to England several times a week, and it has a great trade in the exportation of grain and other products. Population, 10,600.

BRITISH ISLANDS.

THE BRITISH ISLANDS, placed nearly in the north-western angle of Europe, command peculiar advantages, no less for natural strength in war, than as an emporium of commerce in peace. On the southern side, they are almost in contact with France, Holland, and Germany, for ages the most enlightened and flourishing countries of the civilized world; on the east, a wide expanse of sea separates them from the bleak region of Scandinavia; on the west, they overlook the Atlantic Ocean, whose limit, in another hemisphere, is the coast of America; while, in the extreme north, they may be almost said to face the unexplored expanse of the Polar Sea. Exclusive of the northern insular appendages, they may be considered as situated between the fiftieth and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and between the second degree of east, and the tenth of west longitude.

They are geographically divided into two islands of unequal magnitude, Great Britain and Ireland. Britain, again, is divided into two unequal parts,-England, which, including Wales, contains 57,960 square miles; and Scotland, which contains 29,600. The three, though united into one kingdom, respectively exhibit peculiarities which characterize them as distinct countries.

The constitution of Great Britain is an hereditary monarchy, in which the power of the sovereign is controlled by the influence of the aristocracy in the house of peers, and by that of the democracy in the house of commons. The House of Lords is composed of all the nobility of England who have attained the age of 21 years and who labour under no disqualification; of 16 representative peers from Scotland, of 28 representative peers from Ireland; and likewise of 30 spiritual lords, viz. the two English archbishops and twenty-four bishops, and one archbishop and three bishops of Ireland. The house of commons consists of 658 members, of which 471 English members are chosen by counties, universities, cities, and boroughs; for Wales 29, and for Scotland 53, members, chosen by counties, cities, and boroughs; and for Ireland there are 105 members, chosen by counties, universities, cities, and boroughs. The ministry is composed of the first lords of the treasury, the chancellor of the exchequer, the three secretaries of foreign affairs, of the home department, and of war, the lord chancellor, the president of the council, the treasurer of the navy, the paymaster of the forces, the commissioners of the treasury, and other persons of high trust. The first lord of the treasury is mostly considered the premier, or prime minister.

The navy is the force on which Great Britain mainly relies for maintaining her own independence and her ascendency over foreign nations. By it she has acquired, in a measure, the sovereignty of the seas, and the advantages which that Sovereignty confers, of securing her possessions in the most distant quarters of the globe, of protecting her commerce and sustaining the exertions of her armies during war. During the most active period of the last maritime war, the number of seamen in employment amounted to 140,000; and there were in commission 160 sail of the line, and 150 frigates, with 30,000 marines. The estimate for

1831 comprehended 22,000 seamen and 10,000 marines. The pay of these men amounts to 1,081,000l., their subsistence to 603,000l., which, with the cost of stores and allowance for wear and tear, raised the regular current expense to nearly 2,000,000l. The building and repair of vessels, the charges of the dockyards, pay of officers connected with the navy, and a variety of other items, amounted to about an equal sum. These charges with 1,688,000l. in half-pay and pensions, made up the sum of 4,657,000l. as the entire navy estimate for the year 1831.

The military force of the nation at the close of the French wars, amounted to 200,000 regular troops exclusive of about 100,000 embodied militia, a large amount of local militia and volunteers, to which might also be added a number of regiments employed in the territories of the East India Company, and in its pay. After the peace of 1815 a rapid reduction of the military establishment was effected. The militia were disembodied, the regular force was reduced, and in 1835 the estimates were for 81,271 men, independent of 19,720 employed in India and paid out of the land revenue of that country. The charge for these forces was 5,784,8087., but about half of this sum consisted of half-pay, retired allowances, pensions, and other charges consequent on the former immense establishment.

The national debt of Great Britain is 779,565,783 pounds sterling. This enormous amount has been accumulated by borrowing money, and anticipating each year's revenue to pay the interest. The debt is of two kinds, funded and unfunded. The unfunded debt consists of deficiencies in the payments of government, for which no regular security has been given and which bear no interest; and of bills, or promissory notes, issued by the exchequer to defray occasional expenses. When debts of the kind have accumulated, and payment is demanded, it becomes necessary to satisfy the demand, or provide for the regular payment of the interest. Recourse has been always had to the latter method; and a particular branch of the actual revenue is mortgaged for the interest of the debt. Money borrowed in this manner is said to be borrowed by funding. The public funds or stocks are nothing more than the public debts; and to have a share in these stocks is to be a creditor of the nation. There are about 300,000 holders of public stock in Great Britain. A large amount of the current yearly expenditure is appropriated for the payment of the interest of the national debt: in 1834, the amount was 28,561,8851. Income, £53,456,571; expenditure, £53,441,955. The manufactures of Britain have astonished the world, and raised her to a decided superiority over all other nations. This distinction she has attained, not so much by their extreme fineness, as by the immensity of useful and valuable products calculated for the consumption of the great body of mankind; and, above all, in the stupendous exertions made in contriving and constructing the machinery by which they are produced. About one-fourth of the whole industry of the country is absorbed by the cotton manufacture, the annual amount of which is estimated at 34,000,000l. Of this 18,000,000l. is paid in wages to 800,000 persons employed in its various branches; and, allowing for those dependent on them, it affords subsistence to not less than 1,400,000 persons. The annual value of the woollen manufactures is about 20,000,000l., and the people employed number about 500,000. The value of silk goods made is reckoned at 10,000,000l.: of the different manufactures of metals, the entire produce is 17,000,0007., employing 350,000 people.

The imports into Great Britain, in 1825, amounted to £43,137,482, and the exports to £57,335,513. Two-thirds of the commerce of the kingdom is carried on at the port of London; and one-sixth part of the shipping belongs to that city. In 1834, there belonged to the British empire, 25,055 vessels, of 2,716,000 tons, and navigated by 168,061 men. The entries and clearances for the coasting-trade, in 1832, amounted each to 8,500,000 tons. Besides these, in the same year, 4546 foreign vessels, comprising 639,979 tons, and navigated by 35,399 men, entered the ports of Great Britain.

Coal, the most valuable of all the mineral substances from which Britain derives her prosperity, exists in vast quantities, in various parts of the island: the amount