gerous. Among the numerous other lakes are those of Zurich, Neufchatel, Thun, Brientz, Morat, and Biel.

The general surface of Switzerland exceeds, in rugged sublimity, any other portion of Europe. Nature seems here to have formed everything on her grandest scale, and offers the most striking contrasts. Icy peaks rise into the air close upon the borders of fertile valleys; luxuriant corn-fields are surrounded by immense and dreary plains of ice; in one step the traveller passes from the everlasting snow to the freshest verdure, or from glaciers of chilling coldness to valleys from whose rocky sides the sunbeams are reflected with almost scorcl ng power. The nature of the country presents numerous obstacles to its cult ation; but they have been, in a great measure, overcome by the industry of the inhabitants. The traces of the plough are visible on the sides of precipices apparently inaccessible; and spots which nature seemed to have doomed to eternal sterility, are crowned with vegetation. The produce of grain is generally equal to the consumption; but pasturage is the chief object of the farmer.

The chief manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, linen, silk, leather, jewelry-ware, and particularly watches. Though in the centre of Europe, Switzerland is much restricted in its commercial intercourse by the barriers of the Alps and the prohibitory systems of the neighbouring States. The chief exports are cattle, sheep, linen, lace, silks, jewelry, &c. The imports are principally corn, flax, raw silk, cotton, spices, and various kinds of manufactured goods.

The population of Switzerland has not been ascertained by any very accurate census, but is estimated at 2,013,000. The following table exhibits the extent of the different cantons, and their population, according to an estimate formed in 1827:

As to national character, the Swiss enjoy the reputation of being a plain, honest, brave, and simple people, among whom linger the last remnants of antique and primitive manners. Their fond attachment to their native country is conspicuous even amid the necessity which compels them to abandon it and to enter the service of the neighbouring powers. It is observed that no sooner is the Ranz des Vaches, a simple mountain air, played in their hearing, than the hardy soldiers melt into tears. An ardent love of liberty, ever since the grand epoch of their liberation, has distinguished the Swiss people.

The religion of Switzerland is divided between the Protestant and the Catholic. Schweitz, Uri, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, Friburg, Soleure, Valais, and Tesino, are Catholic: St. Gall, Appenzell, Aargau, and Grisons, are mixed. The others

may be ranked as Protestant; though even in Geneva there are 15,000 Catholics. The Protestant churches were at first strictly Calvinistic, both as to doctrine and discipline; but the Genevan church has in a great measure renounced the tenets of this school of theology. The Presbyterian form of church government, however, still prevails throughout Protestant Switzerland. The Catholic religion exhibits this peculiar feature, that, instead of being, as usual, combined with high monarchical principles, it is established among the most purely democratic of the Swiss republics. The Protestant cantons, however, are observed to be decidedly the most flourishing and industrious.

Learning, though not very generally diffused throughout Switzerland, has been cultivated with great ardour at Geneva and Zurich, both of which have a character more decidedly intellectual than most European cities. The great printing and book-selling trade which Geneva enjoyed while the French press laboured under severe restrictions, has been diminished. Elementary knowledge is general throughout the Protestant population. The habits and general forms of life are substantially German, modified, in the western cantons, and especially in Geneva, by a somewhat intimate communication with France.

The Helvetic diet consists of deputics from the different cantons, which meet once a year. Extraordinary meetings may also be called on the requisition of any five cantons. This assembly takes cognizance of everything that concerns the foreign relations and the general defence of the country. The army of the confederacy is formed of contingents, which each canton, in proportion to its number, is obliged to furnish. From these is made out an entire amount of 33,000 men. A remarkable peculiarity in the military system of Switzerland is the employment of its citizens in the service of foreign powers as a stipendiary force. This system has long prevailed, and is regularly authorized by the government. The number, in 1816, was estimated at 30,000. The singular consequence follows, that citizens of the most democratic state in Europe, form, in many cases, the main instrument in supporting the arbitrary power of foreign princes.

Berne is usually considered as the capital of Switzerland, but this is rather nominally than politically. It is pleasantly situated on the Aar, and is a large handsome town, partly fortified, and containing a beautiful cathedral, a college, an arsenal, and several other public edifices. Population, 18,000. Basle, one of the largest trading towns in the confederacy, is situated on the Rhine, by which it is divided into two parts, united by a bridge. It has a library of 28,000 volumes, and is the seat of a university founded in 1459. Population, 16,000. Geneva stands at the western extremity of the lake of that name, and is divided by the Rhone into two parts. Its library contains about 50,000 volumes. It has some manufactures of woollen, muslin, chintz, silk, porcelain; and particularly watches, which employ near 7000 persons. The book trade has ever been very flourishing here. Population, 26,000. Zurich stands on the lake of the same name, upon both sides of the river Limmath. It is distinguished for its college and public library, and has flourishing manufactures of muslins, cottons, and silk handkerchiefs. Population, 11,000. Lausanne is delightfully situated on three eminences a mile north of the Lake of Geneva. It contains a gothic cathedral of considerable magnificence. Population, 10,000. Lucerne, on the lake of the same name, occupies a gentle eminence, and is surrounded by a wall and towers. Among its curiosities is the model of Switzerland, executed in relief by the late General Pfyffer. Population, 7000.

ITALY.

ITALY is an extensive region in the south of Europe, and one of the finest in the world, as to soil and climate, and noted as the theatre of many of the greatest events in history. It is now in a state of degradation and decline, but is filled with grand monuments and scenes, calculated to awaken the most lofty recollections. This portion of the European continent forms a large peninsula, bounded on the north by Germany and Switzerland, east, by part of Austria and the Adri

atic Sea, south and south-west, by the Mediterranean, and on the west, in the northern parts, by France: its length is estimated at 700 miles; its breadth is very unequal; on the north, along the Alps, about 350; in the central parts, about 140; and at the extremity of Calabria, only 75 miles. The whole extent may be reckoned at 127,000 square miles, including Sicily and Sardinia.

The surface of Italy is the most finely diversified of any country in the world; it has the loftiest mountains and the most beautiful plains in Europe. The Alps extend along the whole of her northern frontier, and some of their proudest pinnacles, Mount Blanc, St. Bernard, &c., are within the Italian territory, and their white summits are seen amid the clouds in continuous grandeur, along the whole extent of the plains of Lombardy. The Appenines are a chain purely Italian, ranging through the peninsula from north to south; it does not aspire to the awful height, or wrap itself in the perpetual snows of the Alps. Its highest pinnacles do not rise much above 9500 feet.

The plains of Italy are as remarkable for their extreme beauty as the mountains for their grandeur. The most extensive is that of Lombardy, between the Alps and the Appenines, which, being profusely watered, highly cultivated, and under a genial climate, is perhaps the richest and most productive region in Europe.

The rivers of Italy scarcely correspond to their fame, or to the lofty and classic recollections attached to their names. The Po, with its branches in the north, is the most prominent, and flows into the Adriatic, after a course of about 400 miles. The others in the same region are much smaller in their length of course: they are the Piave, Brenta, Adige, and the Arno. The well-known Tiber, Pescara, Garigliano, and Ombrone, are in the centre; and the Votturno, Ofanto, Brandana, and Sele, in the south. The lakes are the Maggiore, Como, and Garda, in Lombardy, with Perugia and Bolsano, in the States of the Church, together with Celano, in Naples.

Italy is chiefly divided among five potentates. The Emperor of Austria, who holds Lombardy and Venice, to which may be added Parma and Placentia, the appanage of Maria Louisa; the King of Sardinia, who has Piedmont, Savoy and Genoa; the Grand Duke of Tuscany; the Pope, temporal ruler of the States of the Church; the King of Naples and Sicily; beside these, the Duchies of Modena and Lucca, the Principality of Monaco, and the Republic of San Marino, form separate, though they hardly deserve the name of independent States.

The area in square miles, and the population of the several Italian States, are as follows:

The Italians are descended from different nations, which at various times overran Italy, though they are now blended into one race. A few Greeks live on the coast of the Adriatic; there are Germans in Lombardy, Venice, &c., and Jews scattered over the country; but there are not probably 200,000 inhabitants who are not Italians. The Italians are distinguished for their animated and expressive countenances, and they have very brilliant eyes. They are generally of dark complexions, well-formed and active. The women have black or auburn hair, and most of the requisites for beauty. Among the inhabitants are many cripples and deformed for the poor in Italy suffer many hardships and privations: but among the lowest class, and especially at Naples, the human form is seen in its greatest perfection, and the half-clad lazzaroni are the best models for a sculptor.

In all the States of Italy there are the usual grades of European nobility; and the individuals are more numerous than those of the same class in any other country. In some of the States of Italy all the sons of the nobility and their sons, bear the original title. Of course numbers are indigent; and many of them are known to solicit charity.

None of the higher class in the Roman State, and few in all Italy, live in the country. All dwell in cities, and the peasants are deprived of the advantage which is always derived from the residence of the landed proprietors. All the operations of agriculture are imperfect, and all the implements rude. The very wine and oil, are often spoiled from want of skill. Agriculture is not the road to wealth; it is hardly a means of support; and the peasants are generally beggars. Rome, Naples, and the towns of the south, are infested with mendicants, whose distress is not always assumed, for in this country of fertility, many are without food.

The written language of Italy is uniform, though there are various dialects spoken in different districts, and in Savoy the more general language is the French. The Italian is founded on the Latin, which it nearly resembles, and is so sweet and liquid that it is consecrated to music in all European countries; yet though soft to a great degree, it is distinguished for force. The language is spoken with the most purity at Rome, Sienna, and Florence; but the Venetian dialect is the most musical.

The Roman Catholic religion is established throughout Italy, and nowhere else has it so many splendid accessories, addressed to the senses and the imagination. There are Protestant communities in Piedmont, which however are much restricted, though generally the Italians are not intolerant, and Protestants, Greeks, and Mussulmans, may approach the Pope himself. The English at Rome have on the great festivals of the church a conspicuous place assigned them.

In literature and science the world is deeply indebted to Italy: first, for the classical works which she produced during her Augustan age, and then for the brilliant revival of literature under her auspices, after a long night of ignorance, In the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries, she could boast of poets and historians unrivalled amongst those of any age or country; and although her literary greatness has suffered some decay, she has not ceased to produce, from time to time, men eminent in the various departments of learning. The literary collections of this region are of singular value. The library of the Vatican, if not the most extensive, is probably the most valuable in the world. The number of volumes contained in it is estimated at about 600,000, and the manuscripts, the most curious and valuable part, at 50,000. The libraries of Florence, Bologna, and Milan, though secondary to the former, contain, however, a rich store of ancient manuscripts and early printed works, formed by the munificent princes who once reigned over these cities. The fine arts, in Italy, have attained a splendour quite unrivalled in any modern country, and have ever flourished in that region as their chosen and peculiar soil.

Painting, in the sixteenth century, and in the Roman and Florentine schools, reached a height of perfection unequalled perhaps even in ancient times, in all the qualities of form, design, and expression, which constitute the highest excellence of the art: no names can yet rival those of Michael Angelo and Raphael. The sculpture of Italy, even during its happy stages, did not equal that of the ancient schools. In the present age, however, the genius of Canova has burst forth with a brilliancy which has enabled modern times, in this art, almost to rival antiquity. In architecture also, this country has no modern rival. Though some of the northern nations may have erected more huge and costly structures, none of them display the same high, pure, and classical taste.

The collections of art, in Italy, are of a splendour surpassing even that which might be inferred from the great works produced by its artists. Of the masterpieces of the ancients, which were either saved from the desolation of the eastern empire, or dug up from the ruins of temples and palaces, by far the greater part were either found here, or brought into the country; and thus it became the grand depository alike of ancient and modern art.

In music, this region has boasted a similar pre-eminence; and for a long period, all the great composers in the highest style of art were exclusively Italians. Of late, however, Germany has come forward as a powerful rival, and has produced several composers of the first class. Yet Italy seems still to be regarded as the chief home of the musical art: hither all the students repair, and its vocal performers are considered over all Europe as superior to those of any other country.

SARDINIA.

THE Sardinian States are of a very dissimilar character, but united by political circumstances under one government. The kingdom consists of four distinct parts; Piedmont, Genoa, Savoy, and the Island of Sardinia; of which the population, in 1825, was, of Savoy, 501,165; Piedmont, 591,929; Genoa, 2,583,233; Sardinia, 490,050: total, 4,165,377.

The first three divisions, constituting the continental part of the kingdom, are bounded by Switzerland on the north, by Austrian Italy and the duchy of Parma on the east, by the Gulf of Genoa on the south, and by France on the west. It extends from 43° 44′ to 46° 20' N. lat., and from 5° 40' to 10° E. lon., being 200 miles in length from north to south, and 135 in breadth.

The Island of Sardinia lies to the south of Corsica, and is separated from it by a narrow strait. It extends from 38° 50′ to 41° 14' N. lat. It is 162 miles in length, and 70 in mean breadth. The continental dominions contain 19,725 square miles, and the island 9809: total, 29,534.

Continental Sardinia is inclosed on three sides by the Alps and the Apennines, which gives it an irregular surface, and renders the scenery more sublime, and the climate colder, than in southern Italy. On the east, it descends gradually into the beautiful plains which form the basin of the Po. In Piedmont, the soil is very fertile and well cultivated. The plains produce rice, maize, and other grains, and the hills are covered with vineyards and olive-yards. The pastures are very rich, and grazing is an important branch of their husbandry. Savoy is a rugged province, resembling Switzerland in its character, and lying among the loftiest of the Alps near Mount Blanc and Mount Cenis. The irregularity of the surface renders cultivation very difficult, and it is naturally one of the poorest countries in Europe. The Savoyards are but poorly instructed; but their industry, frugality, and sobriety, enable them to gain a comfortable subsistence. The mountainous parts give rise to a great number of small streams, which unite to form the Po. The Rhone forms part of the north-western boundary, and receives the most of those rising on the northern and western slope of the mountains. The Var forms the boundary between Nice and France, and falls into the Mediterranean. The Lake of Geneva borders this territory on the north, and Lago Maggiore on the north-east. There are many smaller lakes.

One of the most remarkable objects in this country is the road over Mount Cenis in Savoy. It was begun by 3onaparte, in 1803, and was completed at a cost of 7,460,000 francs. It is cut through the solid rock, and is furnished with 26 houses of refuge in the most elevated and exposed parts, so that the road is safe even in winter: these houses are provided with bells, which, during fogs, are rung from time to time to direct the traveller from one refuge to another. Between France and Savoy is another road called Les echelles; nearly two miles of it consist of a gallery or tunnel through a solid rock of limestone. This road was begun and the greater part of it accomplished by Napoleon, but was finished by the Sardinian government.

The principal articles of exportation are silk, rice, and oil. Genoa is the only port which has any foreign commerce. The Island of Sardinia supplies the continental states with salt, and some grain and vegetables. There are manufactures of silk at Genoa, to the amount of 1,000,000 to 1,400,000 dollars annually. This city also manufactures paper, soap, chocolate, macaroni, &c. In Piedmont are some manufactures of silk. Nice produces perfumes and scented waters. There