100,000 inhabitants. There are several ancient palaces, and a splendid mosque, but the streets are narrow and crooked, the houses ill-built of brick and mud. The ancient strength of its fortifications has gone into decay. Bourgas, on a bay of the Black Sea, near the foot of the Balkan, has a manufactory of pottery, and carries on a considerable trade. Gallipoli, on the Strait of the Dardanelles, is also a large and commercial place, with 17,000 inhabitants. Sophia, the capital, at the foot of the mountains, is a large town, with 50,000 inhabitants, and carries on a great inland trade between Salonica and the interior countries of eastern Europe. Schumla, or Choumla, near the entrance of another of the great passes of the Balkan, forms rather a chain of rudely entrenched positions than a regular fortress; yet such is the obstinacy with which the Turks defend such situations, that this city has repeatedly baffled the utmost efforts of the Russian army. Varna, a port on the Black Sea, is also a leading military station, and was the theatre of a signal victory gained by Amurath the Great over the Hungarian troops.

A chain of fortresses on the Danube, large, and strongly fortified, formed long the main bulwarks of the Turkish empire. The chief are, Widin, the residence of a pacha; Giurgevo, Nicopoli, Rustshuk, Silistria. They are all of nearly similar character, extensive and populous, uniting with their importance as military stations that derived from an extensive trade along the Danube. The capital of Servia is Belgrade, a fortress of extraordinary strength, long considered the key of Hungary, and disputed with the utmost obstinacy between the Austrians and Turks. It is now equally distinguished as a seat of inland commerce, being the great entrepôt between Turkey and Germany, and is supposed to contain about 30,000 inhabitants. Serajevo, or Bosna Serai, capital of Bosnia, is still larger, having been estimated to contain 60,000 inhabitants. It trafficks in arms and jewellery, and receives numerous caravans from Constantinople. Jassy, the capital of Moldavia, is situated in the interior of the country, amid a marshy district, which renders it unhealthy. Galatz, at the junction of the Danube and the Sigeth, carries on most of the trade, and might attain considerable importance if the navigation of the former river were made free. Bucharest, the capital of Wallachia, is a large city, containing about 80,000 souls. It is built upon a dismal swamp, to render the streets passable over which, they are covered with boards; but, in the intervals, water springs up from dirty kennels beneath. Here European and Oriental costumes and manners unite in nearly equal proportions. The people are clothed half in hats and shoes, half in calpacs and pelisses; the carriages are drawn as often by buffaloes as by horses. The nobles live in extravagance and dissipation, while the people are plunged in poverty.

Joannina, which Ali Pacha made his capital, has a very picturesque situation on a lake, surrounded by lofty mountains, and is supposed to contain a population of 35,000. The houses are irregularly built, intermingled with gardens and trees. A great proportion of the inhabitants are Greek. Scutari, the capital of Upper Albania, is situated in a rich plain; has a population of about 16,000; and carries on some considerable manufactures of cloth. Its pacha is now the most considerable potentate in Albania. Salonica, the ancient Thessalonica, carries on an extensive commerce, and possesses a population of 60,000 or 70,000 inhabitants. It is one of the few remaining cities that have preserved the form of the ancient fortifications, the mural turrets yet standing, and the walls that support them being entire.

GREECE.

GREECE, though bearing so great a name, and occupying so high a place in our recollections, had ceased, until of late, to be considered as having any actual existence. The torrent of Ottoman conquest, overwhelming all the institutions and monuments of the classic ages, seemed to have obliterated its place as a separate State, and to have sunk it into the subordinate province of a huge barbarian empire. But memorable events just elapsed have again produced the Greeks to

the world, with claims to be considered as a great and independent people. Even under their deep humiliation, materials were not wanting, out of which their independence might be re-established. Amid the gloom of Turkish domination, the Greeks still existed as a people every way separate; not, indeed, manifesting their former high displays of genius and heroism, yet still remaining distinct in language, manners, and religion, and exhibiting even revived symptoms of intellectual and general activity. After witnessing the glorious though chequered efforts made by the nation itself, and though with various success; considering the part now publicly taken by the States of Europe, we can no longer hesitate to sever Greece from the Turkish empire, and give to it a place among European nations.

Greece, considered as a free State, has been contracted in extent, in consequence of the reverses sustained by the national arms, and the treaty concluded by the European powers; and includes only a small portion of what we have been accustomed to consider as Greece. Bounded on the north by a line from the Gulf of Volo to that of Zeitoun, the present kingdom of Greece does not comprise the extensive and populous territories of Thessaly, Macedonia, and Albania. It now comprises the Morea, a small part of the continent north of the Isthmus, the Island of Negroponte, and about the one-half of the islands in the Archipelago, comprising the northern Sporades, the Cyclades, and the islands in the Gulf of Egina and Napoli: the area of the whole is probably 21,000 square miles; and the population about 752,000. The general divisions of the kingdom are the four provinces of Western Hellas, Eastern Hellas, the Morea, and the Isles, which are subdivided into ten nomoi, and these into eparchies.

The interior of Greece is greatly diversified with rugged mountains, and with fertile and picturesque vales. Along the shores there are beautiful plains, the soil of which is fruitful, and the climate delightful. There are many inlets and bays, affording great facilities for commerce, and presenting strong inducements to navigation. In various parts of Greece there still remain many interesting monuments of antiquity. The ruins of temples, known to have been built 3000 years ago, exist at the present day. It is remarkable that these remains exhibit a style of architecture, common in that remote age, more truly chaste and beautiful than has been since devised. After all the improvements of modern times, we are obliged to admit that the ancient Greeks are our masters in this noble art.

Constitutional monarchy is the form of government destined for Greece by the great powers, and in which she appears to have acquiesced; and a monarch, after many difficulties, has at length been chosen. The political elements are by no means duly organised. The two parties are that of the people, composed generally of the inhabitants of the towns, and having at its head the commercial State of Hydra; and that of the capitani, or chieftains, who, in the interior of the country, have established a species of feudal military sway.

Industry, in Greece, is only in a very secondary state, yet its products are not inconsiderable. Agriculture is carried on with rude implements and bad cattle, and only in some quarters is irrigation practised with diligence; yet so genial are the climate and soil, that the harvests are generally more plentiful than in England. Wheat, barley, and maize are chiefly cultivated, and of each there is some surplus for exportation. Cotton is raised to a very great extent, and forms the chief basis of its export trade. The olive, in Greece, retains its ancient celebrity; "nor has the honey of Mount Hymettus lost any part of its exquisite flavour." That species of grape called the Corinthian, which produces the finest currants, is peculiar to the Morea and the Ionian Islands, especially Zante, from which it is largely exported. Greece, however, is altogether a pastoral country; the people are skilled in the management of cattle, but much more in that of sheep and goats, which are fed in vast numbers on the sides of the hills, and on the high plains of the interior. Of these animals, however, the breed is not of any eminence, and has even degenerated.

Manufactures are in a still ruder state than agriculture; and the country is indebted to foreigners for every thing, except a few coarse and common fabrics. Commerce is carried on with much greater activity than any of the other branches

of industry, and has been one of the main instruments in raising this renowned country from its extreme depression. The great circuit of its coasts, its 1 umerous bays, and its position in the vicinity of some of the richest and most productive countries in the world, clearly destined Greece to be a maritime and commercial region. The proud ignorance of the Turks, leading them to despise trade, left this career open to the vassal people. A prodigious impulse was given by the general war consequent on the French revolution, which left the Greek for a long time the only neutral flag in Europe. The islands, and particularly the little harbours of Hydra, Ipsara, and Spezzia, not only exported the produce of Greec itself, but maintained the carrying trade from port to port all around the Mediterranean. There was even an extensive transmission of articles to the head of the Gulf of Salonica, and thence by land into the heart of Austria. A Greek mercantile and shipping interest of great wealth and importance was thus created. In 1809, the exports were estimated to amount to £2,649,700; comprising cotton, tobacco, corn, wool, olive oil, currants, silk, cheese, cattle, dye-stuffs, honey, fruits, &c. It is difficult to ascertain the present condition of the commerce of this country. During the late dreadful contest it was trodden under foot; and the Hydriots, in whom it centred, had all their resources occupied by war: nor has it probably revived at all to its ancient extent.

The Greek army, in 1820, was estimated at 50,000 men, consisting of brave but irregular troops, and commanded by skilful generals. The military force at present does not probably exceed 15,000 men. The navy is composed mostly of merchant brigs belonging to the islands, amounting to about 80 sail. They generally beat the Turkish fleets during the war.

The character of the modern Greeks, both before and since the revolution, has been painted in somewhat unfavourable colours. They are represented as addicted to the vices incident to every despised and oppressed people; avarice, intrigue, cunning, servility, and as being almost entirely governed by motives of selfinterest. The reproach, however, seems to be mainly due to the inhabitants of the towns, and the chiefs, particularly the Fanariots, or rich Greeks of Constantinople. The peasantry are allowed to be a very fine race; and, indeed, the great actions performed in the course of the late contest must silence those who pretend that the nation has lost all its ancient energies.

The religion of the Greeks is that which was designated by their name, to distinguish it from the Roman Catholic, after the great schism of the eastern and western churches. This, however, may be considered on a lower level as to any enlightened views of Christianity. According to a late writer, the lower ranks in Greece have a religion of mere forms, while the upper ranks have no religion at all. The most respectable of the clergy are the monks or caloyers, out of whom are chosen the bishops, and even the patriarch or general head of the religion, who, before the late convulsions, resided at Constantinople.

Learning, in Greece, where it once flourished with such unrivalled splendour, had fallen into a state of total extinction. As soon, however, as the government had acquired a degree of consistence, they turned their immediate attention to this object; and, really, considering the pressure of so dreadful a war, effected wonders. They established schools of mutual instruction at Athens, Argos, Tripolizza, Missolonghi, and most of the islands. They decreed the formation, at Argos, of an academy on a great scale, where every requisite of intellectual culture might be united; also of central schools and libraries. All these institutions are yet only in their infancy; but there cannot be a doubt that, the independence of the Greeks being once established, one of the first results would be an extraordinary effort to raise their intellectual character as a nation.

The dress of the Greeks is formed on the model of the Turkish, either from imitation, or from adoption of the same oriental pattern. In general the attire of all who can afford it is gaudy and glittering, covered with gold and silver embroidery, and with the most brilliant colours. Above all, the arms of the chiefs are profusely adorned, mounted with silver and even jewels. The simplicity which a more refined taste has introduced into the costume of the western Europeans is held by them in contempt.

The food of the Greeks, through the combined influence of poverty, and the long fasts enjoined by their religion, is composed in a great measure of fish, vegetables, and fruit. Caviare is the national ragout, and, like other fish dishes, is eaten seasoned with aromatic herbs. Snails dressed in garlic are also a favourite dish. Their most valued fruits are olives, melons, water-melons, and especially gourds.

The islands form a prominent and interesting appendage to Greece. Cyprus, Rhodes, and a considerable number of smaller isles ranged along the coast of Asia Minor, have been always considered as Asiatic. The Greek European islands are Candia, the Cyclades, and those termed the Ionian Islands.

Candia, lately ceded to the Pacha of Egypt, is one of the largest islands in the Mediterranean, being reckoned about 500 miles in circumference. It is perhaps more favoured by nature than any other part of Europe. The interior is covered with mountains, of which Mount Ida towers to a very lofty height. The plains and valleys along the sea-coast are covered with myrtle groves, spacious plane trees, and other beautiful woods; and the soil, though merely scratched by a wretched plough drawn by two sorry oxen, yields luxuriant crops of wheat and barley. The olive grows in high perfection; though the oil, for want of care and skill in preparing it, is unfit for the table, and only used for soap and other manufactures. The inhabitants are a fine race, and were more independent of the Porte than the vassals of most other parts of the empire. The mountains and mountain plains, however, have continued to be occupied by a Greek race, called the Sfacciotes, who in these high tracts carry on the trade of shepherd, not altogether uncombined with that of robber. It was by this body that the chief stand was made in the late insurrection, and they had nearly driven the Turks out of the island, when they were forced themselves to yield to the Pacha of Egypt.

Of the towns, Candia, the capital, has had its harbours choked up with sand, against which the Turks never take any precautions; and the greater part of its trade has passed to Canea. It still bears the trace of a handsome Venetian town, with substantial houses formed into regular streets and squares; but the havoc of its long siege and subsequent desertion give it a very gloomy aspect. Canea, without the name of capital, is populous and flourishing, having 15,000 inhabitants; but with nothing in its aspect to distinguish it from other Turkish towns. Between Canea and Candia is Retimo, a well-built town, situated in a delightful country abounding with olive trees; but its harbour having likewise suffered, Canea has profited in this as in the former instance.

The Cyclades, a numerous and celebrated group, are interposed between Candia and Asia Minor, but nearer to the continent, from which they recede in a southeast direction. Their aspect, bold, rocky, yet richly verdant, presents to the vessels sailing through it scenes of varied beauty. The principal of these are Paros, Antiparos, Naxos, Santorini, Milo, Argentera, Syra, Andro, Sino, Zea, &c.

Negropont is a long narrow island separated from the continent by the narrow channel of the Euripus, or Egripo. It is diversified by rugged mountains and fertile valleys. It was supposed to contain about 60,000 inhabitants previous to the revolution, but does not probably at present contain half that number, the Turks, who were more numerous here than anywhere else in southern Greece, having been expelled the island. The capital, Chalcis, or Negropont, has a population of 10,000 or 12,000. The Northern Sporades, lying north-east of Negropont, comprise Skyro, Chelidonia, and other islands.

Two islands, Hydra and Spezzia, though little favoured by nature, have, in a singular manner, taken the lead of all the States and Islands of Greece. Hydra, a rugged mass of rock, with scarcely a spot of verdure, remained without an inhabitant till Turkish oppression, and the desolations of the Morea, drove a few fishermen to build their huts on its precipitous sides. The same causes in which the settlement originated were favourable to its increase; and as it appeared too insignificant to excite jealousy, it was allowed to compound with the Turks for a moderate tribute. It now contains about 40,000 inhabitants, many of whom have attained to considerable wealth, and rule the republic with a sort of aristocratic sway.

The energies of Hydra have been for some time exclusively turned to

war, and perhaps she will never regain her former extensive commerce. Spezzia is a sort of outwork of Hydra, with only 3000 inhabitants, yet with somewhat more of cultivation.

Athens, the most celebrated of all the Grecian cities, is situated in Attica just without the isthmus of Corinth, 5 miles from the sea. The town stands at the foot of a steep rock, called the Acropolis, and spreads into a plain on the west and north-west. It is surrounded by a thick, irregular wall, 3 miles in circuit, and 10 feet high, passing along the brinks of precipices. Some portions of the ancient wall are also to be seen. The remains of ancient architecture are still sufficient, in spite of the ravages of barbarian conquerors, to excite the admiration of the traveller. The temple of Theseus, the lantern of Demosthenes, the tower of the winds, Adrian's gate, the peristyle of the Parthenon, and a wall of the theatre exist entire. The population of the city is uncertain: it probably does not exceed 12,000 or 13,000.

Napoli de Romania, or Nauplion, is the best built town in the Morea. It stands on an eminence projecting into a wide bay, and is surrounded with walls. From its maritime situation and great natural strength, it must ever be one of the keys of Greece. Its harbour is good, and the commerce considerable. Population, 15,000. Tripolizza, the Turkish capital of the Morea, was taken during the war by Ibrahim Pacha, and is now mostly in ruins: it contained 4 mosques, 6 Greek churches, and a bazar, and a population of about 12,000. Navarino stands upon an excellent harbour in the south-west part of the Morea. Here the Turkish naval power was completely destroyed by the combined fleets of Russia, France and England, on the 20th October, 1828, the anniversary of the battle of Salamis. It is a place of some trade, and has a good harbour. Modon, in the same neighbourhood, has a good harbour and considerable trade. Coron, not far distant, on a wide bay of the same name, is a small town, but well fortified. Malvasia, on the eastern coast, stands on an island connected with the continent by a bridge. It has a strong citadel, and its neighbourhood produces the wine called Malvoisia, or Malmsey. Calamata, on the Gulf of Messenia, is a considerable, but open town. Tripolizza, the former capital of the Morea, stands in a narrow valley at the foot of Mount Menalus: before the revolution it had a considerable trade and a population of 12,000. Misitra, or Mistras, was a strong place with 7000 inhabitants previous to the revolution. It is now in a ruinous state. The ruins of Sparta are about 3 miles from this town. Corinth stands on the isthmus uniting the Morea to the continent. It still exhibits the remains of its ancient walls and the citadel, or acro-corinthus. It formerly had a harbour on each side of the isthmus, but the only port is now on the Gulf of Lepanto. The houses are generally well-built. Patras, at the entrance of the Gulf, has a considerable commerce, and formerly was the residence of many European Consuls. It suffered severely during the late contest, the country in its neighbourhood being ravaged by the contending armies. Missolonghi is without the Morea. It stands on the Gulf of Lepanto opposite Patras. It was captured by the Greeks in 1821, recaptured after several attempts by the Turks in 1825, and afterwards rescued by the Greeks. It is a fortified and important place. Here Lord Byron died, in 1824.

This country, the most celebrated of antiquity, has at length, after ages of bondage under the iron yoke of the most ruthless oppressors of modern times, assumed an independent attitude among the nations of the earth. The nomination of Otho of Bavaria to the throne of Greece by the great powers of Europe, and supported by their influence, affords a prospect that the new state has now permanently obtained a tranquil and settled condition. The moral and religious instruction of this interesting people has for some years past attracted the attention of several missionary and philanthropic societies, both in Great Britain and the United States, and cheering hopes are entertained that their exertions, aided by those of the government, and the natural quickness and intelligence of the people themselves, will, at no distant period, exhibit such an improvement in the public mind, as will satisfactorily prove to the world, that the Greeks of the present day want but the aid of free institutions and favourable circumstances, to enable them to rival the brightest era of their distinguished forefathers.