at one time 600,000 inhabitants. After its capture by the Saracens, it began to decline, and the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope destroyed its commercial importance. At present it consists of narrow, crooked, and dirty streets, and lofty buildings, and is surrounded by a high stone wall. It has considerable commerce, and its markets are well supplied. Population, 20,000. An immense accumulation of ruins, mostly buried in the sand, Pompey's pillar, Cleopatra's needles, the cisterns, catacombs, and columns, some entire and some broken, scattered here and there, are the sad remains of this once rich and splendid city. Pompey's pillar is a very remarkable monument, 95 feet high. Cleopatra's needles are two obelisks, one thrown down and the other standing, 584 feet long, and seven feet broad on each side at the base. They are composed each of a single block of granite covered with hieroglyphics. The catacombs are very extraordinary monuments: they begin at the extremity of the old city, and extend a considerable distance along the coast, forming what was anciently called the "City of the Dead." They consist of grottoes cut in the rocks; each one that has been opened has been found to contain three coffins.

Rosetta stands on a branch of the Nile, four miles from its mouth. It is completely environed in groves of orange, sycamore, date, banana, and other trees. The city has a considerable trade, and upwards of 50 caravanserais. Population, 15,000.

Damietta is situated between the eastern branch of the Nile and the Lake of Menzaleh, 10 miles from the sea. The houses are all white, and are built in a crescent around a bend of the river. The appearance of the town is beautifully picturesque, and the country in the neighbourhood is the most fertile and best cultivated in Egypt. Here are vast magazines of rice belonging to the government. The commerce of the place is very active. Population, 50,000.

Suez, on the shore of the isthmus of that name, on the Red Sea, has a large trade with Arabia by caravans and vessels. It is surrounded by a sandy desert. Population, 5000. Cosseir is a scaport on the Red Sea, and has some trade in corn. The country around it is a desert. Kenneh, on the Nile, west of Cosseir, is a place of considerable trade. Thebes, Luxor, Esneh, and many others, are remarkable for their antiquities.

NUBIA.

NUBIA is an extensive region lying south of Egypt, and extending to the confines of Abyssinia. It is bounded on the west by the Great Desert, and on the east by the Red Sea: nearly the whole country is composed of rocky and sandy deserts. The atmosphere is extremely dry, the summer hot, the climate healthy, and the plague unknown: the whole region, together with Kordofan, adjoining it on the south-west, is now subject to Mahommed Ali, the Pacha of Egypt, being conquered by him a few years since, in consequence of which some changes are already apparent in the character of the people. The various Arab tribes who reside in the deserts of Nubia, and who were constantly at war with each other, are no longer fierce and turbulent, but are reduced to complete subjection under the iron sway of the ruler of Egypt: they pay him an annual tribute, and are obliged to furnish such camels and guides for the use of government and of travellers as may be required. Europeans can now traverse, under the protection of the Pacha, the whole region from Egypt to the confines of Abyssinia with comparative safety.

The divisions of Nubia are Kenous Nouba and Dar Mahass, in the north, the kingdom of Dongola, in the centre, south of which are the districts of Dar Sheygya, Shendy, and the kingdom of Sennaar; the sovereign of the latter, called the Mek, is at present a pensioner of Mahommed Ali. The capital of the same name, once estimated to contain 100,000 inhabitants, is now deserted and in ruins, the inhabitants having abandoned it since the Egyptian conquest. Another division is that of Beja, extending along the coast of the Red Sea, of which the port of Suakem is the chief town on the Nile, are the small towns of Shendy, El Makarif,

Old Dongola, New Dongola, and Derr, each containing from 3000 to 4000 inhabitants.

The little fertility which Nubia possesses is artificial, being produced by raising the water of the Nile, by means of wheels worked with oxen, to the level of the highest banks: in this way a strip of land of from one-eighth of a mile to half a mile in breadth is rendered productive, on which is cultivated dhourra, a coarse species of grain, barley, cotton, tobacco, and indigo; the latter is manufactured for the benefit of the Pacha, who monopolises, as in Egypt, the whole trade and commerce of the country. The trade from the interior, which passes through Nubia to Egypt, consists mostly of slaves, gold, and ivory; that from Egypt and Arabia, European goods, arms, &c.

The people of this region are of two classes; the inhabitants of the towns similar to the Berbers of Mount Atlas, are generally a handsome race, well made, strong, and muscular; the females are modest and pleasing in their demeanour. The inhabitants of the desert are all of Arab origin, and in their manners, customs, and person, resemble the same people in other quarters. One of the most remarkable features of this region consists in the numerous remains of antiquity, found chiefly on the west side of the Nile; some of these rival the monuments of Thebes. The Egyptian edifices consist of masonry: those of Nubia are either under ground or are dug out of the solid rock. One of the most magnificent is that of Ebsambul, in a state of complete preservation, rising immediately from the bank of the river, and cut out of a perpendicular cliff; in front and near it are statues of colossal size, supposed, when perfect, to have measured 60 or 70 feet in height. At El Bellal, near Merawe in the district of Dar Sheygya, are the remains of numerous temples, pyramids, &c.

The territory of Sennaar, bordering on Abyssinia, does not altogether partake of the barrenness so general in the greater part of Nubia; some portions of it are comparatively fertile, being watered by the tropical rains which are here considerable, though not so violent as in regions immediately under the equator. Through their influence the country in August and September assumes a verdant and delightful aspect, and a number of lakes are formed. On the cessation of the rains the dhourra ripens and the country acquires a yellow appearance. Soon afterwards the lakes dry up, the soil becomes parched, all the beauty disappears, and bare scorched Nubia returns, with its hot winds and moving sands, glowing and ventilated with sultry blasts. Although Sennaar produces abundantly dhourra, millet, rice, and even wheat, it yields few commodities fitted for trade. The only intercourse consists in the transit trade from interior Africa to Egypt and Arabia. Beyond Sennaar is Fazuclo, a hilly territory, forming a province of that country. Farther south is Bokki, noted for its gold. To the west, along the Bahr el Abiad, dwell the Shilluk Negroes, who conquered Sennaar in 1504; many of them live on the islands in the river, which are here very numerous. The Shilluks are men of vast size and strength, and wonderful stories are told by their neighbours of their prowess in attacking the hippopotamus and crocodile in the water, which they seldom fail to overcome. They have numerous canoes which they manage with great skill, and form expeditions against their neighbours, both up and down the river. The Denka, rather farther up the Bahr el Abiad, were originally the same people, but they are now constantly at war with one another; both possess great quantities of cattle; they are armed with long spears, which they do not throw, but, crouching behind their shields, wait the approach of their enemy.

ABYSSINIA.

ABYSSINIA, though it has imbibed some elements of civilization, has scarcely any intercourse with the civilized world. On the east, it is supposed to be bounded by the Red Sea, with which, however, the proper domain of Abyssinia comes in contact only in one point; on the north, it communicates with Sennaar; on the west, with the Shilluks and the Denka; on the south, with the Mahometan king

dom of Adel; but the greater part of these two last frontier lands consists of wild regions occupied by the Galla, who always ravaged, and have recently conquered, a large portion of the Abyssinian monarchy. It is difficult even to guess the dimensions of a region of which there are no fixed limits, measurements, or surveys; but somewhere between 700 and 800 miles from east to west, by 500 or 600 from north to south, may form a tolerable approximation.

Abyssinia is a country of mountains, intersected by deep and extensive valleys. A lofty range, called Lamalmon, bars the entrance from the Red Sea. The mountains of Samen, between the Tacazze and the Coror, are still more elevated. To these may be added the mountains of Gojam, Efat, and Amid-Amid, supposed to be a branch of the Mountains of the Moon. The height of some of the summits has been estimated, but with doubtful accuracy.

The Bahr el Azek, or Blue River, rises in the country of the Adows, and flows through the Lake Dembea into Sennaar, where it joins the Nile. This is the stream whose source was discovered by Bruce, and considered by him as the main branch of the Nile. The Taccazze is another stream, falling into the Nile.

The country in general is extremely fertile and productive, where it can be cultivated; and is in a great measure exempted from that empire of sand which dooms so large a portion of Africa to sterility.

Though situated within the torrid zone, the climate of Abyssinia is generally temperate and healthful, but varies with the surface and aspect of the country. In the high and mountainous regions, the inhabitants enjoy a cool and salubrious atmosphere, and a serene sky; while those in the valleys, or in the vicinity of marshes or sandy deserts, languish under excessive heat or a moist and suffocating air. The seasons are divided into wet and dry. The rainy season continues from April to September.

The production of wheat is considerable; teff, a kind of very small grain, is likewise abundant, and affording bread in universal use; tocusso, a plant yielding a kind of black bread for the lower classes; ansete, a plant used as a substitute for grain; honey in abundance; papyrus, balsam, myrrh, and opocal pasum. Salt is an important natural production, found in great quantities on a plain between Masuah and Amphila.

The customs of the Abyssinians are described by Bruce and Salt as exceedingly savage. They eat the raw and still quivering flesh of cattle, whose roaring is to be heard at their feasts. A perpetual state of civil war seems the main cause of their peculiar brutality and barbarism. Dead bodies are seen lying in the streets, and serve as food to dogs and hyænas. Marriage is there a very slight connexion, formed and dissolved at pleasure; conjugal fidelity is but little regarded. The rulers are unlimited despots in ecclesiastical and civil affairs, disposing of the lives of their subjects at pleasure.

The Abyssinians boast that their country was the Sheba of Scripture, and that it was converted to Judaism several centuries before the Christian era. It is much more certain, that, prior to the middle of the fourth century, the nation was converted to Christianity, which it has ever since professed. This is, however, more tinctured with Judaism than in the other nations of Christendom. Boys and girls are circumcised; the Mosaic laws in regard to clean and unclean meats are respected; the seventh day is their Sabbath, and their altars have the form of the ark of the covenant. The people of Abyssinia are composed of various tribes and colours. The general tint is olive. They are a graceful, well-formed race, with little of the negro physiognomy. They have long hair, and their features are somewhat of the European cast. The Jews, who form a considerable class, settled here in remote ages, and have nearly lost the Hebrew language. They are considered as sorcerers, and it is believed that they can transform themselves into hyenas. They are generally smiths, weavers, and carpenters. The inhabitants of Tigre are ferocious and unprincipled, but the ferocity and filthiness of the Gallas surpass all description. In their excursions they destroy all human life. They smear themselves with the blood of slaughtered animals, and hang the entrails about their necks. They have been often thought to be negroes, but bear a greater resemblance to the Caffres of Southern Africa than any other peo

ple: they have a round head, small eyes and thick lips, with fine hair, rather frizzly than woolly. In the north-west parts, the Shangalla are a rude and depraved tribe. They are negroes, with visages approaching to those of apes. They live under the shade of trees, and at some seasons in caves. The Abyssinians hunt them as wild beasts. One of the tribes feed upon locusts.

This country consists of three separate independent States: Tigre, on the Red Sea; Amhara, in the west; and the districts of Shoa, Efat, &c. in the south. Three centuries ago, these countries were under a single government. The population is supposed to be about 4,000,000.

Adowa, the capital of Tigre, is the only point of communication with the interior. It has a considerable trade, and the inhabitants are among the most highly civilized of the Abyssinians. Population, 8,000. Antalo, which has for some time been the residence of the Ras, stands upon the side of a mountain, and is supposed to contain a population of 10,000. Axum, the ancient capital, is now in ruins, but is remarkable for its antiquities. Gondar, the capital of Amhara, is three or four leagues in circuit. The houses are built of red stone, and roofed with thatch. It is now in the hands of the Gallas.

THE SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT.

THE SAHARA, or Great Desert, forms an immense range of territory, which would, indeed, cover the whole northern half of Africa, but for the partial exemption produced by the mountain range of Atlas, and the course of the Nile. Its actual and almost uninterrupted extent may be stated as from the 15th to the 30th degree of north latitude, and from the 30th of east to the 15th of west longitude. It may thus amount to nearly 3000 miles in length, and 1000 in breadth. This vast expanse, the most dreary and terrible on the face of the earth, forms an obstacle to the intercourse of nations greater than is opposed by the widest oceans. Yet the daring spirit of enterprise has induced human beings to occupy every extremity or corner in which subsistence could by any means be procured; and they have formed routes by which, though amid suffering and deadly peril, regular journeys may be performed across this vast and desolate region. The term Sahara is usually applied to that part of the Great Desert lying westward of and between Fezzan and the Atlantic Ocean.

The surface of the Sahara does not consist entirely of one uniform plain of sand. In the most level tracts it has been blown into heaps or hillocks, steep on one side, which remarkably increase both the dreary aspect of the region, and the difficulties with which the traveller has to contend. In other places it is traversed by dark ranges of naked rock, which sometimes approach so close as to leave only a narrow path for caravans to march through. The terrible spectacle of human bones which strew the ground, and sometimes crackle unexpectedly beneath the tread of the traveller or his camel, lends, at intervals, additional horror to the scene.

The most remarkable and important feature, however, which diversifies the great African desert, consists in the oases. This eastern term, which signifies island, is very appropriately given to those detached spots, over which springs, bursting forth amid the desert, diffuse some partial verdure and fertility. The view of these spots inspires travellers with emotions peculiarly pleasing; sometimes from mere contrast with the encircling desolation, but sometimes also from the peculiarly elegant landscape which they themselves present. They are embellished with flowering shrubs of peculiar beauty; whole tracts are covered with forests of acacia, from which rich gums distil, and with groves of the date and lotus, yielding sweet fruits and berries, which form the food of whole tribes; while mild and graceful animals, chiefly of the antelope species, trip along the meadows. Fezzan is a very large oasis, about 300 miles long and 200 broad, sometimes dignified with the title of kingdom. Nature has scarcely distinguished it from the surrounding desert: it is not irrigated by a stream of any importance. The inhabitants, however, by laborious processes, have raised up the water, which is always found at a certain depth under ground, and have thus formed a number of

little oases, in which dates and a little grain can be reared, and where a few asses and goats, and numerous camels are fed. It is the inland trade, however, that the inhabitants regard as the source of animation and wealth. Fezzan being due south from Tripoli, and about midway between Egypt and Morocco, is the most central point of communication with interior Africa. Through these resources Fezzan is enabled to maintain a population of about 70,000. The sultan is tributary to the bashaw of Tripoli. Mourzuk, in a low unhealthy situation, but well watered, is the residence of the prince, and the chief seat of commerce. It contains remains of stone edifices; but the present structures are poorly built of mud. Zuela Gatrone and Tegerhy are small towns on the eastern frontier. Traghan, near Mourzuk, is an industrious place, with a thriving manufactory of carpets. Sockna, in the desert to the north, on the road from Tripoli, forms a great caravan station.

Tibesty, a country but little known, is situated south-west from Fezzan, and is separated from it by a desert of some extent. Its vales are fertile in corn, and its mountains afford excellent pasturage. The people, rude and ferocious, have been subjected to the control of Fezzan, paying annually to that State 20 camel-loads of senna. There are a few small villages in Tibesty, of which Arna, Aboo, or Boeyra, and Berdai, have been named as the chief. Caravans sometimes pass through this country from Fezzan to Bergoo, or Waday.

North-east from Fezzan, on the caravan route to Egypt, is Auguela, known upwards of 2000 years ago to the Greeks and Egyptians by almost the same name; it is a dirty ill-built place, about a mile in circuit. There are some fertile spots in its vicinity; the country abounds in dates, and the inhabitants have established some active commercial relations with interior Africa. A few days' journey eastward is Siwah, a deep hollow valley watered by numerous springs, and fertile in dates, the staple product and food of this region. The people, estimated at 1500 to 2000, form a turbulent aristocracy, but derive some wealth from the continual passage of the caravans. Yet the chief interest which attaches to Siwah, arises from its being supposed to contain the celebrated shrine of Jupiter Ammon.

Gadamis, an oasis to the west of Fezzan, derives importance from the passage of the caravans from Tripoli and Tunis to Timbuctoo, though these are not so considerable as those from Fezzan and Morocco. It has the singularity of being divided between two hostile tribes, each enclosed by a separate wall, with a common gate, which is shut when they are engaged in mutual warfare.

Tafilet, Draha, and Sejinmessa, to the south of the Atlas, and loosely appended to the empire of Morocco, enjoyed a great celebrity during the middle ages, but have been little heard of in modern times. The caravans to Timbuctoo, which once rendezvoused in this territory, now generally prefer the more westerly route through Suse, by which they avoid the steep passage of the Atlas. These countries, however, are understood to contain many fertile tracts, abounding in excellent dates, and producing a valuable breed of goats. Akka and Tatta are the principal stations from which the caravans take their departure.

The most interior part of the desert, between Fezzan and Central Africa, is chiefly occupied by two native tribes, the Tibboos and the Tuaricks. The former are found on the caravan route to Bornou; the latter, more westerly, on that of Kano and Kashna.

The Tibboos are nearly as black as the negroes, but with a different physiognomy: their hair is longer and less curled, their stature low, their features small, and their eye quick. They subsist on the milk of their camels and the produce of a few verdant spots scattered amid the desert; this they seek to aid by a little trade with Fezzan, and not unfrequently by the plunder of the caravans. They are themselves, however, exposed to a mightier race of spoilers, the Tuaricks, who, at least once a year, make an inroad into their territory, sweeping away every thing, and sparing neither age nor sex. Bilmah, the Tibboo capital, is a mean town, built of earth, and the other villages, of course, inferior. To the south of this town is a desert of thirteen days' journey, perhaps the most dreary on earth. There is neither a drop of water nor a vestige of animal or vegetable life.