St. Helena, so celebrated lately as the ocean-prison of the greatest of modern warriors, has now reverted to its original destination, as a place of refreshment for the returning East India ships. It presents to the sea, throughout its whole circuit of twenty-eight miles, an immense perpendicular wall of rock, from 600 to 1200 feet high, like a castle in the midst of the ocean. On the summit is a fertile plain, interspersed with conical eminences, between which picturesque valleys intervene. The climate on the high grounds is very agreeable and temperate, though moist. There are only four small openings in the wall of rock, on the largest of which, where alone a little beach appears, has been built James Town, where the governor resides, and where refreshments, though on a limited scale, are provided for ships. By the India bill of 1833, St. Helena is vested in the crown, and is now managed by a governor nominated by the king.

Turning the Cape of Good Hope, and entering the Indian Ocean, we arrive at Madagascar, one of the largest and finest islands in the world, placed between 12° and 26° south latitude: it may be about 840 miles long, and 220 in its greatest breadth. The interior is traversed from north to south by a chain of lofty mountains, from whose rugged sides descend numerous streams and rivulets, which water the fertile plains at their base; these are extremely fruitful in rice, sugar, and silk; fitted, indeed, for almost every tropical product, though there seem few plants peculiar to the island. The mountains contain, also, valuable mines, especially of iron, but only partially worked.

Madagascar contains many fine bays and ports well suited for commercial purposes. Those most frequented are Anton, Gils Bay, on the east side; also, Foul Point, Tamatave, and Port Dauphin; on the west is the Bay of St. Augustine, and several on the north-west coast, of which Bombetok is the chief. On this are the towns of Bombetok and Majunga. The trade here was formerly in slaves, but is now in bullocks, bees-wax, rice, and gums. American vessels often visit this place. The population of Madagascar has been variously estimated at from 1,000,000 to 4,000,000, but is probably about 2,000,000. The people are not savages; they cultivate the ground, and practise some arts; yet are on the whole rather rude and uninformed. They are described as a peculiarly gay, thoughtless, and voluptuous race, void of care and foresight, and always cheerful and goodhumoured. They are divided into a number of small tribes, who wage very frequent wars with each other.

The most important people in Madagascar lately have been the Ovahs, occupying an extensive and high plain in the interior, whose sovereign, Radama, the first chief in Madagascar who assumed the title of king, had reduced to vassalage the largest and finest part of the island. He had formed a train of artillery, and armed a great part of his troops with muskets, and had also sent a number of young natives to obtain instruction in Paris and London. With the aid of the English missionaries, he had established a printing-press, and trained a number of teachers, both male and female, who were distributed through various parts of the kingdom. Unhappily, this prince, in July, 1828, was poisoned by his wife, who immediately raised an unworthy paramour to the throne. This event has introduced great anarchy, inducing several subject states to shake off the yoke; and there seems much room to fear that it will arrest entirely the career of improvement commenced under such prosperous auspices. Radama's kingdom has been called Imerina, of which the capital is Tananarivou, with a population of about 8000. The French have made frequent attempts to form colonies in Madagascar, which they even repeated in 1829, but never with any important result. They have small stations, however, at St. Mary, Tamatave, Foul Point, and near Fort Dauphin.

The Mascarenha Isles are situated due east from the central parts of Madagascar, and from 400 to 500 miles distant. They are the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius. The former is about forty-eight miles long and thirty-six broad. It consists entirely of the heights and slopes of two great mountains, the most southerly of which contains a volcano in perpetual activity, throwing up fire, smoke, and ashes, with a noise truly tremendous. A great part consists of what the French call burnt country, a complete desert of hard black soil, with numerous

holes and crevices. The rest, however, well watered by numerous torrents, is favourable not only for the ordinary tropical products, but for some fine aromatic plants. The Portuguese discovered this island in 1592; but being taken by the French in 1642, it was called Bourbon, which name it has resumed, after bearing, during the revolutionary period, that of Réunion. Coffee brought from Mocha in 1718, succeeded so well that the Bourbon coffee was considered second only to the Arabian. At a later period, its cloves came into some rivalry with those of Amboyna. All other objects of culture, however, have lately become secondary to that of sugar, which has been found profitable beyond any other. The population of Bourbon, in 1831, was 97,231; of which 14,059 males, and 13,586 females, were free; 46,083 males, and 23,483 females, were slaves. The exports were valued at 396,000l., the imports at 293,000l. The island labours under the disadvantage of not having a secure harbour, or even a roadstead,

Mauritius, or the Isle of France, is about 120 miles east of Bourbon, not quite so large, yet still 150 miles in circuit. The rugged mountains which cover a great part of the island give it a somewhat sterile character, and it does not yield grain even for its limited population; yet the lower slopes produce coffee, cotton, indigo, and sugar of improved quality. It was called Isle of France, and became the capital of the French possessions in the Indian seas. It was considered impregnable, and remained in their undisputed possession after the greatest disasters which befell their arms on the continent. It became then a strong-hold for privateers, who are said, in ten years, to have taken prizes to the value of 2,500,0001. At length, in 1810, it yielded to the arms of Britain, with less resistance than was expected. Since 1812, when its sugars were admitted at the same duties as those from the West Indies, this branch of culture has taken a great precedence over all others; the produce, from about 5,000,000 pounds, having risen, in 1832, to about 60,000,000. In that year, the export of coffee was only about 20,000 pounds. Its ebony, the finest in the world, and its tortoise-shell, are each worth about 90001. The imports, in 1826, were estimated at 657,000l., and the exports at 572,000l. The island, in 1827, contained 94,600 inhabitants, of whom about 8000 were whites, 15,000 free negroes, 69,000 slaves, the rest troops and resident strangers. Port Louis is a good harbour, with rather a difficult entrance. It affords every convenience for careening and refitting; but provisions, being all imported, are not very abundant.

A considerable number of islets, single or in groups, spot the Indian Ocean to the east of Africa. Of dependencies on Mauritius, Rodriguez contains only 123 inhabitants, Diego Garcia 275, Galega 199. The Seychelles, nearly north from Madagascar, with the bordering group of the Almirantes, are a cluster of very small islands, high and rocky, and little fitted for any culture except cotton; but they abound with cocoa-nuts, and their shores with turtle and excellent fish. The population, in 1826, was 7665, of whom 6525 were slaves.

The Comoro Islands, a group of four, between Madagascar and the continent, are very elevated and mountainous in the interior; but the lower tracts abound in sheep, cattle, and all the tropical grains and fruits. The inhabitants are mild and industrious, but they have been most dreadfully infested and their numbers thinned by the Madagascar pirates, who make an annual inroad, laying waste the open country, and blockading the towns. Angazicha, or Great Comoro, is the largest, containing a mountain supposed to rise 6000 or 7000 feet high; but Anjouan, or Johanna, is the most flourishing, its chief town being supposed still to contain 3000 inhabitants. Mohilla and Mayotta are comparatively small.

Socotra, forty leagues east from Cape Guardafui, is governed by the sheik of Keshin, a petty state on the south-east coast of Arabia, who sends one of his family annually to collect the revenue. It is twenty-seven leagues long and seven broad; mountainous, rocky, and arid; yet it yields the best aloes in the world, and a small quantity of dragon's-blood. Though the coast is bold, it affords excellent harbours; and ships may procure bullocks, goats, fish, and excellent dates, at reasonable prices. This island was recently selected by the East India Company as a station for the vessels connected with the steam navigation of the Red Sea; but being found unhealthy, has been abandoned.

ASIA.

ASIA is an immense continent, the largest in the ancient world; and, perhaps, nearly equal to Europe and Africa united. It is surrounded by sea through much the greater part of its outline, which, though broken by large gulfs and peninsulas, presents generally a huge unbroken mass, formed into a kind of irregular square. On a general estimate, and omitting the most prominent points, we may state Asia at 6000 miles in length, and 4000 in breadth; which, supposing a regular figure, would give 24,000,000 square miles; but, in consideration of the many irregularities, a considerable deduction must be made.

The boundaries of Asia are chiefly formed by the great oceans. On the north it has the Arctic or Frozen Ocean; to the east and south it faces the great Pacific, which separates it from America by almost half the breadth of the globe. On the south, however, this ocean is enclosed by the islands of Malaysia so as to form a gulf of vast dimensions, called the Indian Ocean. The western limit alone touches on the other continents, and constitutes a very varied line of land and sea. From the north, opposite to Nova Zembla, a chain of mountains, called the Urals, breaks the uniformity of the great northern steppes. From the termination of that chain to the river Don the line is somewhat vague; but thence, that river, the Black Sea, the straits connecting it with the Mediterranean, and the Mediterranean itself, form a distinct boundary. Asia is joined to Africa by the isthmus of Suez, and separated from it by the long canal of the Red Sea. The immense expanse of its territory presents every possible variety of site and climate, from the dreary confines of the polar world to the heart of the tropical regions. Every thing in Asia is on a vast scale; its mountains, its table-lands, its plains, its deserts. The grandest feature, and one which makes a complete section of the continent, is a chain of mountains, which, at various heights, and under various names, but with very little, if any, interruption, crosses Asia from the Mediterranean to the eastern sea. Taurus, Caucasus, and the Himmaleh, are the best known portions of this chain. On one side it has southern Asia, the finest and most extensive plain in the world, covered with the richest tropical products, watered by magnificent rivers proceeding from this great storehouse, and filled with populous nations and great empires. On the other side, this chain serves as a bulwark to the wide table-land of Thibet, which, though under the latitude of the south of Europe, has many of the characteristics of a northern region. To the north, the recent observations of Humboldt exhibit three parallel chains; the Kuen-lun, or Mooz Tagh, the Thian-chan, or Celestial Mountains, and the Altaian. These also support table-lands; but not, it appears, so very elevated as has hitherto been supposed. They are not believed by that traveller generally to exceed 4000 or 5000 feet in height, and in many places enjoy a mild and temperate climate, yielding not only grain, but wine and silk. The Altaian chain separates Middle Asia from Siberia. Some of the southern districts have been found by the Russians capable of supporting numerous herds of cattle; but the rest is abandoned to wild animals, not generally of a ferocious description, but by the beneficence of nature covered with rich and precious furs, which afford a great object for hunting and trade.

One grand feature of Middle Asia consists in large lakes or inland seas, sult like the ocean, receiving considerable rivers, and having no outlet. These are, the Caspian, the Aral, the Baikal, and several others of lesser magnitude. No continent has so many rivers of the first magnitude, some of which yield in length of course only to the amazing waters of the New World. We may distinguish in Asia three systems of rivers; one, comprising the most distinguished and important streams, descends from the principal chain of mountains, fertilizes the great southern empires, and falls into the Indian Ocean. The most remarkable streams of this class are the Euphrates, the Indus, and the Ganges. Again, from the parallel chain which separates Tartary from Siberia is another series of rivers,

which direct their course to the Northern Ocean; the Obe, the Irtysh, the Yeniseï, and the Lena,-gloomy streams, of vast length; but flowing in this inhospitable region, and bound by almost perpetual frost, they afford little aid either to agriculture or to the intercourse of nations. A third system consists of the rivers which, rising in the high mountain centre of Asia, flow across the empire of China, to whose prosperity they mainly contribute, and fall into the Eastern Pacific. The Amour runs in the same direction through Northern Tartary, but without any profit to that barren district. Lastly, the Sir, the Amoo, and others of great magnitude, though secondary to the above, flow along the great plains of Western Tartary; but, unable to reach the ocean, expand into the Aral, the Caspian, and other inland seas.

In regard to its social and political state, Asia presents, of course, a most varied scene; and yet there are some features which at once strike us as generally characteristic of this continent. Among these is the transmission of institutions, usages, and manners unaltered from the earliest ages. The life of the patriarchs, as described in the earliest of existing historical records, is still found unchanged in the Arab tent. Asia, at a very early period, anterior even to the commencement of regular history, appears to have made a vast stride in civilization; but then she stopped, and has suffered herself to be far outstripped by the originally less advanced nations of Europe.

The despotism to which the people of Asia are generally subjected is connected, probably, with this stationary character. A republic, an hereditary aristocracy, a representative assembly, a regular control of any kind, are, except in some local and peculiar circumstances, ideas altogether foreign to the mind of an Asiatic.

Oriental sovereigns, even the greatest, still maintain the primitive institution of sitting and administering justice in person. Though immutable in their forms of court and maxims of government, they are changeable as to their place of residence and seat of empire. Every successive prince usually selects some favourite city which he either creates or raises from insignificance, and lavishes his wealth in adorning it.

The number of communities, of chiefs, and even of princes, making a regular trade of robbery, is another feature that strongly characterises Asia. They carry it on in no clandestine manner, but avowedly, even boastfully, and as a calling which they consider as honest and respectable. The numerous tracts of mountain and desert afford them holds in which to maintain themselves; and these are seldom far distant from some rich plain, or great commercial route, on which to exercise their depredations. Arabia, from the earliest times, has been a hive of such plunderers.

The aspect and manners of the Orientals are different from those of Europeans, and in many respects exhibit a decided contrast. Instead of our tight short clothes, they wear long floating robes, wrapped loosely round the body. In entering the house, or wishing to show respect, when we would take off the hat, they take off the sandal. They make no use of chairs, tables, plates, knives, forks, or spoons. At meals they seat themselves cross-legged on the floor, and eat out of a large wooden bowl placed in the middle, and filled, not with our solid joints, but usually with stews or sweetmeats. They use no beds, or at least nothing that we would call a bed. An Oriental, going to sleep, merely spreads a mat, adjusts his clothes in a certain position, and lays himself down. Their household furniture is thus exceedingly simple, consisting of little more than carpets covering the room, and sofas set round it, both which are of peculiar beauty and fineness. Their attire is also simple, though composed, among the rich, of fine materials, and profusely ornamented with jewels and precious stones. Their arms and the trappings of their horses are also objects on which they make a studied display of magnificence. The beard, over all the East, is allowed to grow, and is regarded with reverence.

In their disposition and temper, the people of the East show striking peculiarities. They are grave, serious, and recluse; they have no balls, no theatres, no numerous assemblages; and they regard that lively social intercourse in which Europeans delight, as silly and frivolous. Unless when roused by strong incite

ments to action, they remain stretched on their sofas, and view as little better than madmen those whom they see walking about for amusement and recreation. Their moral qualities cannot be very easily estimated, but may be generally ranked below those of Europeans. Their domestic attachments are strong, and their reverence for ancestry deep; their deportment is usually mild and courteous; and they show themselves capable of generous and benevolent actions. The sentiments and conduct of the Asiatics towards the female sex are such as cannot exist without a general degradation of character. The practice of polygamy, with the jealous confinement to which it naturally leads, seems to be the radical source of this evil. The exclusion of the sex from society; the Hindoo maxim which prohibits them from reading, writing, and being present at religious ceremonies; are evidently parts of a general system for reducing them to an inferior rank in the scale of creation. It is true there is one local example (in Thibet) of an opposite system,—female sway, and a plurality of husbands; but this is evidently no more than a capricious exception to the general rule.

The pure and refined system of Christianity, though it was first communicated to Asia, has not maintained its ground. Two systems of faith divide Asia between them: one is that of Mahomet, which, by the arms of his followers and of the conquering Tartars of Central Asia, has been thoroughly established over all the western tracts as far as the Indus. It even became, for centuries, the ruling religion in India, though without ever being that of the body of the people. The other is the Hindoo religion, divided into its two great sects of Brahma and Buddha; the former occupying the whole of Hindoostan, the latter having its centre in Thibet, filling all the east of Asia and Tartary, and penetrating even north of the Altaï.

The useful arts are cultivated in the Asiatic empires with somewhat peculiar diligence. Agriculture is carried on with great industry and care, though by less skilful processes, and with much ruder machinery, than in Europe. A much smaller amount of capital, particularly in live stock, is employed upon the land. The cultivators scarcely rise above the rank of peasantry. The chief expenditure is upon irrigation; for, in all these tropical regions, water alone is required to produce plentiful crops. Asia has also a number of manufactures, which, though conducted with small capitals and simple machinery, are not equalled in richness and beauty by those of any other part of the world. All the efforts of European art and capital have been unequal fully to imitate the carpets of Persia, the muslins of India, the porcelain of China, and the lacquered ware of Japan. Commerce, though fettered by the jealousy of the great potentates, is very active throughout Asia. The commerce of Europe is principally maritime; that of Africa principally inland. Asia combines both. Her interior caravan trade is very considerable, though much diminished since Europe ceased to be supplied by this channel. The native maritime trade on her southern coasts is also considerable, but the foreign trade, particularly that carried on by the English nation with India and China, has now acquired a superior importance.

The animal kingdom of this great continent is as vast, as the climate of the regions it comprehends is diversified.

The elephant, though never bred in a tame state, may be placed at the head of its domestic animals. The inhabitants of India appear to have known and practised, at the time Alexander's army entered the country, the very same modes of capturing, training, and employing them, which are used at the present day. Its services appear to be universal, and it is as essential to the Indian sportsman as a good horse to an English fox-hunter. Domestication has so far counteracted the instinct of nature, that tame elephants are employed to decoy and catch their wild brethren. Immense troops of the latter still roam over the northern parts of India, in Ceylon, Chin India, particularly in Laos, and probably in all the larger of the neighbouring islands.

White elephants are occasionally met with. They are, however, so rare that the king of Siam considered the possession of six individuals at one time, a circumstance peculiarly auspicious to his reign. They are believed to contain the spirit of some departed monarch, and as such have the rank and title of a king,