ancient Lesbos, though greatly decayed, has still a population of 40,000, one half of whom are Greeks. Its trade in oil is considerable. Tenedos, a small rocky island, produces a highly esteemed wine.

Smyrna, the emporium of the Levant, situated on a fine bay on the west coast of Asia Minor, is a city of great antiquity, and claims to be the birth-place of Homer. It is about four miles in length and one in breadth. Its groves and minarets make a handsome appearance at a distance; within, however, are gloomy walls and ill-paved streets. The city is liable to earthquakes, which, except in 1739, have caused more fear than injury. The plague, however, seldom allows a year to pass, without committing serious ravages. The population has been estimated at from 100,000 to 120,000, of whom 30,000 are supposed to be Greeks, and 8000 Armenians. Upwards of 2000 Europeans, chiefly French, are settled here for the Levant trade, and form a numerous society among themselves which enlivens the gloom peculiar to a Turkish city. The exports of Smyrna are those of Asia Minor, raw silk, cotton, carpets, mohair, raisins, drugs, and a few precious stones. The returns are chiefly in wrought silk, woollens, tin, lead, and glass. North of Smyrna is Bergamos or Pergamos, once the capital of a powerful line of kings. Population, 10 or 12,000. Brusa or Bursa, about 60 or 70 miles south-west from Constantinople, was for a short time the capital of Turkey; it is a fine city, containing about 60,000 inhabitants. Its mosques are said to amount to 365, some of which are very large and splendid.

Eastward from Brusa are the cities of Angora and Tokat; the former is noted for a peculiar breed of goats which thrive only in a limited space around the city. The hair of this animal rivals silk in fineness, and is made into a species of camlet by the inhabitants of Angora, who are chiefly employed in the manufacture of that fabric. The population of the city, which less than a century ago was reckoned at 100,000, now numbers only 20,000. Tokat, lying due east from Angora, has an extensive manufacture of copper vessels, made of the metal produced from the mines in the neighbourhood; also of blue morocco and silk. It carries on a considerable inland commerce, communicating by caravans with Diarbekir, Smyrna, Brusa, &c.

Trebisonde, on the Black Sea, upwards of 500 miles east from Constantinople, is the chief emporium of this part of the Turkish empire. The inhabitants are about 50,000 in number, consisting of all the races that inhabit Turkey, mixed with the more varied tribes from Caucasus. They carry on a considerable trade in fruit and wine, and also in silk and cotton stuffs of their own manufacture.

Erzerum, on the head waters of the Euphrates, south-east from Trebisonde, is an ancient city: the inhabitants date its foundation from the time of Noah. The climate is healthy, but the cold in winter is intense. Population 80 to 100,000. Diarbekir, on the Tigris, contains 40,000 inhabitants, and from its situation on the high road between Persia and Turkey, as well as on the communications down the rivers, forms a sort of key to the commerce of Western Asia. Orfa, situated between the Euphrates and Tigris, is a well-built town, with a handsome mosque consecrated to Abraham, and a population of 20,000 souls. A village south of this place, inhabited by Arabs, still bears the name and site of Haran, the original abode of the patriarch. Mosul, with 35,000 inhabitants, is on the west bank of the Tigris, and opposite to what is supposed to be the ruins of Nineveh; the only monuments are mounds of earth nearly a mile in circumference, similar to those of Babylon, though not nearly so lofty or so perfect.

Bagdad, on the Tigris, exhibits scarcely any remnant of the gay and romantic splendour of the court of the Caliphs, not even a vestige of their palace, and but few of the costly edifices with which they enriched this city, when it was the capital of the Mahometan world. Almost all of modern Bagdad is mean and foreign to the ideas which the name excites. The trade in Indian goods is considerable, which are brought up the Tigris from Bussorah, and distributed by means of caravans through Syria, Asia Minor, &c. The inhabitants are reckoned at from 60 to 80,000.

Directly south of Bagdad, and on the west bank of the Euphrates, opposite Hillah, are the ruins of Babylon, a spot to which recollection gives an almost un

rivalled interest. Here, over a space extending five or six miles in every direction, are spread the undoubted remains of the ancient glory of nations, which none of the proud capitals of the old world ever rivalled in magnitude and the grandeur of its structures, and which is rendered still more imposing by the awful antiquity to which its origin extends. The ruins consist of vast mounds of earth, formed by the decomposition of the materials of buildings. The principal of these are three great masses, of which the first is 1100 yards long and 800 broad, the second is 700 yards square, and the third 762 yards in circuit, and 198 feet in height. There are, besides, smaller mounds scattered about: these all contain vast quantities of excellent bricks; many have inscriptions on them, and are generally so well cemented together, that it is difficult to separate a brick from the others entire. Several extensive cities have been built at different times out of these remains. The interior of some of the mounds contain many cavities ten

anted by wild beasts, bats, and owls.

South-west from Hillah is the town of Mesjid Ali, which contains the tomb of Ali, the son-in-law and one of the successors of Mahomet. It is visited annually by great numbers of Persian travellers, who esteem this point of devotion equal to a pilgrimage to Mecca. On the Shat ul Arab, or united stream of the Euphrates and Tigris, is situated Bussorah, a city containing 60,000 inhabitants. Its most important trade being that with India, is carried on partly by British, but chiefly by Arabian vessels, of which those of 500 tons burthen can ascend the river to this point. Merchants of various nations reside here, also English and Dutch consuls. It is a dirty and meanly built place; the bazaars are wholly unsuitable to the valuable merchandise deposited in them, and there is only one mosque which has a decent appearance.

SYRIA.

SYRIA formed, until lately, an important appendage to Asiatic Turkey, and constituted one of the chief divisions of the Turkish empire; it is now under the control of Mohammed Ali, and was wrested by him from his former master in the war of 1832, between Turkey and Egypt.

No country was more celebrated in antiquity than Syria. In the south-west was the Land of Promise, the country of the Israelites, and the cradle of Christianity. Phoenicia, particularly its cities of Tyre and Sidon, were famous for commerce. Damascus was long the capital of a powerful kingdom, and Antioch was once a royal residence, and accounted the third city in the world for wealth and population.

Baalbec and Palmyra still exhibit splendid ruins of their ancient greatness. Here have the Assyrians, Jews, Greeks, Romans, Saracens, the Crusaders, and the Turks, struggled at different periods for mastery. Ignorance, superstition, and barbarism, now cover the land, and no traces of its civilization remain but ruins. The leading feature in the physical aspect of Syria consists in the great mountain chains of Lebanon or Libanus, and Anti-Libanus, extending from north to south, dividing the country into two distinct portions, one bounded by the coast, and the other by the desert.

The principal rivers are the Orontes, flowing north into the Mediterranean, a short distance south-west from Antioch, and the Jordan, running south into the Dead Sea, besides many small streams from the heights of Lebanon, &c., which, water and fertilize the country. Of the lakes of Syria the chief is the wellknown Asphaltites, or Dead Sea; its waters are salter than those of the ocean, and very clear and limpid. Many absurd stories respecting this lake are now refuted by the concurrent testimony of modern travellers. Tiberias, or the lake of Galilee, enclosed by cultivated lands and wooded mountains, forms a rich and picturesque object. The others are the lakes of Damascus, Hems, and Antioch. The soil of Syria in favourable situations, and when well watered, is of great fertility, and produces abundantly wheat, rye, maize, dhourra, and rice, cotton, tobacco, sugar, indigo; also grapes of excellent quality, which furnish red and

white wines equal to those of Bordeaux. The fruits are various, and comprise, according to the soil and situation in which they are raised, nearly all those of tropical and temperate climates. The commerce of Syria has never been so great in modern as in ancient times, and has of late much diminished, A very extensive land communication has generally been carried on from Syria with Arabia, Persia, and the interior of Asia; but the long-continued wars and disturbed condition of the neighbouring states has greatly interfered in latter times with the passage of the caravans and pilgrims by whom it was carried on.

Syria is inhabited by various descriptions of people; of these the Arabs from the desert who drive their flocks into the fertile and neglected pastures which more or less abound in all parts of this region, form a numerous class, of which many obtain a fixed settlement in the towns and cities; and, conforming to established customs, frequently become thriving traders and merchants; the basis, however, of the population of the towns, is principally Turks and Greeks; the former speak their own language, although that in most general use is the Arabic. The steep and rugged heights of Lebanon have given shelter to races of quite a different character from the wandering or the settled Arabs. Those slopes unfit for pasturage are made by the laborious culture of the people to yield them subsistence. They are a martial race, fight on foot with the musket, and have what is most rare in Asia, national assemblies, with some form of republican government, Among these mountain tribes the chief are the Maronites and Druses; the former were originally the proselytes of Maron, a saint of the fifth century; they are Catholics, and notwithstanding some deviations from what is considered strict orthodoxy, have been received into communion with the church of Rome: of the numerous villages built on the sides of the hills, each has its priest, its chapel, and its bell. The Maronites in general live in a happy simplicity in rude hamlets or solitary huts; they recognize no distinctions of rank, and there are few among them who do not labour for their own support: even the monks and priests till the ground, raise flocks, and pursue mechanical occupations. The Maronites are well armed, and can muster from 30,000 to 35,000 men. The entire population is estimated at from 130,000 to 150,000.

The Druses inhabit the more northern regions of Lebanon, and are a ruder people than the Maronites. Their origin is traced to a persecution and dispersion that took place about the beginning of the 11th century among the followers of Mahomet These people derive from their independence an energy and a vigour of character unknown to the other nations of Syria. A considerable part of the land is in the possession of a few great sheiks, whose factions often embroil the natives, but at the same time maintain a spirit of liberty and activity. All the great affairs of the nation must be decided in an assembly of their sheiks, at which even peasants are allowed to be present, and to give their voice.

The Druses are divided into several sects, although generally they appear rather indifferent to religion, following the Mahometans or Maronites in their devotions, as caprice or convenience dictates. They are a hardy, robust, and warlike people, brave almost to excess, and entertain a proverbial contempt for death. A general levy of the nation produces about 40,000 men, hence the entire population is estimated at about 100,000. The Motonalis, who live to the south of the Maronites, are bigoted Mahometans of the sects of Ali, and are hence called shiites or heretics by the Turks: they are an intrepid and brave people, and though not mustering more than 7000 fighting men, have always preserved their independence. The Ansarians reside north of the Druses: they live in a sort of anarchy both as to religion and government, believing in transmigration of souls, several incarnations of the Deity, &c. Their numbers are inconsiderable.

Damascus, the capital of Syria, is one of the most venerable cities in the world for its antiquity, and is known to have existed in the time of Abraham, and to have been ever since a great capital; it is at present the most flourishing city in Syria, and is built of brick; its streets, like those of all Turkish towns, are narrow and gloomy, the inhabitants reserving their magnificence for the interior courts and palaces, under the Turkish empire. It has maintained a high importance, being on the route of the great caravans to Mecca, whence even the Turks

esteem it holy, and call it the gate of the Caaba. This causes not only an immense resort, but a great trade, which the pilgrims are careful to combine with the pious objects of their journey. The environs of Damascus are very fertile, and tolerably cultivated, and rank as the paradise of the east. The inhabitants are 100,000 in number.

Aleppo, until within the last fifteen years, was accounted the first city in Syria, and the third in the Turkish empire: it was estimated to contain from 150,000 to 230,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000 were Christians. On the night of the 13th of August, 1822, Aleppo was visited by a calamity of the most dreadful nature, which has rendered its future existence as a city, problematical; being shaken almost to pieces by an earthquake, which was felt from Diarbekir to Cyprus. The most appalling picture is drawn of the horrors of that night: 20,000 persons are supposed to have been killed, and nearly the whole of the remainder perished for want of shelter and food.

Scanderoon, the port of Aleppo, about 70 miles to the north-west, possesses a fine roadstead, and the only good anchorage in Syria: its trade was once important, but has now been mostly transferred to Ladikieh. Antioch, the ancient queen of the East, is now a poor ill-built town of 11,000 inhabitants. Ladikieh, or Latakia, 70 miles south-west of Antioch, is a place of some trade, mostly in tobacco; population 10,000. To the southward is Tripoli, a neat town, with some trade, and a population of 16,000, of whom about one-third are Christians. The next port, proceeding to the south, is Beyrout, inhabited mostly by Druses; in its neighborhood is raised the finest silk in Syria. Its exports and that of cotton cause some trade; population 6000. Said, or Sidon, famous in ancient times for its commerce, being second only to Tyre, is now a small place with 5000 inhabitants: it is the principal port by which is carried on the maritime trade of Damascus across the mountains. Sour, a small fishing village of 300 or 400 houses, is all that remains of the once celebrated Tyre. Modern times have seen the dread sentence fulfilled, that the queen of nations should become a rock, on which fishermen were to dry their nets. The harbour now only admits of boats.

Cyprus, lying west of Syria, has along with that country become tributary to the Pacha of Egypt; it was, in ancient times, the most beautiful, as well as the most voluptuous island in the Mediterranean Sea: it is 140 miles in length, by 63 in breadth. The natives boast that the produce of every land and climate will flourish on their soil in the highest perfection: its wheat is of superior quality; but wine may be considered as the staple product. Its fruits are also delicious, and game abundant: the inhabitants, anciently estimated at 1,000,000, are now reduced to 60,000 or 70,000; two-thirds of whom are Greeks. Its females still display that finest model of the Grecian form and features, for which they were anciently celebrated. The inhabitants carry on some manufactures of leather, carpets, and cotton, all of great excellence; the colours being particularly fine and durable. The principal places are Nicosia the capital, Larnica, Famagusta, and Buffa, originally Paphos, distinguished by ancient fable as the birth-place and residence of the "goddess of love."

ADANA.

THE Pachalic of Adana, lately a district of Caramania, is in length about 150 miles, and extends westward from the northern part of Syria, along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea; it is a fertile and tolerably well cultivated country, yielding wheat, barley, cotton, &c.; its chief towns are Adana the capital, and Tarsus the birth-place of St. Paul, which has still an ancient church that bears his name. The population of each is from 20,000 to 30,000 souls. This region was, together with Syria, conquered from the Porte by Mahomed Ali, in 1832.

PALESTINE.

PALESTINE, first called the Land of Canaan, afterwards the Land of Promise, or the Promised Land, the Land of Israel, the Holy Land, and by way of pre-em

inence, the Land, is a country included in Syria; the part west of the Jordan is bounded north by the mountain of Anti-Libanus, east by the river Jordan and the Dead Sea, south by Arabia Petræa, and west by the Mediterranean sea. In length it is about 170 miles; but its breadth greatly varies, being in some places 58 miles, and in others 22.

This country was divided by Joshua among the twelve tribes of the Israelites; Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, Dan, Ephraim, Zebulon, Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and part of Manasseh, had their portion allotted on the western, commonly called this side of Jordan; while Reuben, Gad, and the remaining part of Manasseh were placed on the eastern side, commonly called, beyond Jordan. The Romans, on obtaining full possession of this country, divided the part west of the Jordan into three tetrarchies, viz., Judea proper, Samaria, and Galilee. The part east of the Jordan was divided into the smaller districts of Peræa, Decapolis, Gaulonitis, Galaaditis, Batanæa, and Auranitis. Neither the name nor the division of Palestine, nor any of the above subdivisions, are now recognized by the natives or the Turkish government; but as to administration, the country is included partly in the pachalic of Acre, and partly in that of Damascus.

The land of Canaan contained a great number of towns and villages at the time when it was invaded by the Israelites, and in after ages it was very populous. In the time of David, the number of combatants in the kingdom of Israel was I stated at 1,100,000; and from this the total population has been computed at 8,000,000. The population is now comparatively small, but composed of various descriptions; viz. Turks, who occupy all the civil and military posts; Arabs, numerous in the country districts; Greeks, Christians, and Jews. There is a considerable number of monks, and in every considerable town, there is at least one convent; but the monks are described as extremely ignorant and vicious.

The face of the country is beautifully variegated by mountains, hills, valleys, and plains. The most remarkable mountains are Lebanon, Hermon, Carmel, Tabor, Ephraim, and Ebal.

The climate is exceedingly good. It seldom rains, but the deficiency is supplied by the most abundant dews. The cold is never excessive; and although the summer heats are great, yet they are mitigated by a periodical breeze, which renders them supportable.

The Scriptures, in describing the great fruitfulness of this country, characte:ize it as "a land flowing with milk and honey." Although some have represented it as barren, yet according to the best informed travellers, the greater part displays a truly luxuriant fertility, corresponding entirely to the description of the promised land; and where well cultivated, it is exceedingly productive.

Jerusalem, the capital of Palestine, is situated in a mountainous region, about 35 miles from Jaffa, its sea-port, and 120 miles from Damascus. The name of this city is associated with every thing that is venerable and holy in the mind of Christians and Jews, as well as Mahometans; whose general name for it is El Kods, or the Holy, adding occasionally El Sheriff, the Noble: it is greatly reduced from its former size and magnificence; all that remains of this once splendid city, is a Turkish walled town, enclosing a number of heavy unornamented stone houses, with here and there a minaret or a dome, to break the dull uniformity. Two splendid objects, however, somewhat enliven the gloom of Jerusalem; these are the church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Mosque of Omar; the former has long been the grand object of pilgrimage and visitation to the Christian world. It was erected by the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, upon a site which was supposed to include the crucifixion, the entombment, and the resurrection. The Mosque of Omar, erected on the site of Solomon's temple, is one of the most splendid buildings in the East. Its numerous arcades, its capacious dome, with the rich costume of Eastern devotees, passing and repassing, renders it one of the grandest sights which the Mahometan world has to boast of Jerusalem contains about 25,000 inhabitants, of whom 13,000 are Mahometans, and 4000 Jews; at Easter, the pilgrims often amount to 5000; there are 61 Christian convents, of which the Armenian is the largest.

Bethlehem, six miles south of Jerusalem, is a village of 2500 inhabitants, memo