TONQUIN.

Tonquin, of the three kingdoms now subject to the sway of Cochin-China, is the largest, most fruitful, and most valuable. Its character is still more decidedly Chinese than that of the others; and indeed, it was only in the eighteenth century that it separated from that empire, retaining all its forms and institutions. Both the English and Dutch have attempted to open an intercourse with Tonquin, where fine and cheap silks, lackered-ware, and some gold may be obtained; but the arbitrary exactions of the mandarins, and the little demand for foreign cloths, in consequence of costumes fixed by law being worn by all ranks, rendered it a losing traffic, and it has been almost wholly abandoned. Kesho, situated about 20 miles from the mouth of the river Songo, is the chief city of Tonquin, and is said by some to contain 40,000 inhabitants; other accounts represent it as three or four times more populous.

T'SIAMPA.

T'siampa, or Chiampa, is a small district nominally under the control of the king of Cochin-China, and lying to the southward of that country; the climate is very hot and unhealthy for strangers; it is said to be fertile, and its productions the same as Cambodia. It abounds with elephants and also with the rhinoceros.

LAOS.

Laos, situated on both sides of the Mecon, or Cambodia river, is a country of some extent, but little known, never having been visited by any European. Part of it is subject to Siam, part to Cochin-China, and the residue independent. Some time ago the king of Laos was taken prisoner by the Siamese, and carried, with his children, in a cage to Bankok, and several thousands of the inhabitants were forcibly taken to the same place. Elephants, both wild and tame, are extremely numerous in Laos; and the capital of the country is designated by a term which signifies the place of ten millions of elephants. The people of Laos are called Shans. Yun-shan and Lowa-shan are districts lying north-west from Laos, known only by name to Europeans. The people and language, as well as those of Laos and Assam, are said to be essentially the same as the Siamese.

THIBET.

THIBET forms a high table plain, surrounded on all sides by ranges of lofty mountains, some of which are among the most elevated on the globe: it is bounded on the north by Mongolia; west by Little Thibet; south by Hindoostan and Birmah; and east by China. On the southern boundary are the Himmaleh Mountains; on the northern the Kuenlun and the Tshoungling, or Blue Mountains; and on the east are those called the Yung-ling and Pe-ling.

Besides its grand mountain features, Thibet is distinguished as containing the sources of many of the greatest rivers of Asia. The Burrampooter, Irrawaddy, and Salwen, flowing into the Bay of Bengal: the Mecon, the great river of Cambodia, and the greatest of Chinese streams, the Hoang Ho and Yang-tse Kiang, all have their sources within its borders. The lakes Manasarowara and Rawan Hrad, are picturesque and striking, and surrounded by some of the loftiest snow-covered peaks of the Himmaleh, and which are held by the Hindoos in religious veneration: and there are also the Lake of Terkerri, 70 miles long, Lake Tousea and several others, respecting which no further particulars are yet known.

The climate of Thibet is cold and bleak in the extreme, from the severe effects of which the inhabitants are obliged to seek refuge in the sheltered valleys and hollows, or amidst the warmest aspects of the rocks. In the temperature of the seasons, however, a remarkable uniformity prevails, as well as in their periodical duration and return.

The mineral productions of this region are numerous. Gold is found in great quantities and very pure; sometimes in the form of gold dust, in the beds of the rivers, and sometimes in large masses and irregular veins. There is a lead mine

about two days' journey from Teeshoo Loomboo, which probably contains silver. Cinnabar, abounding in quicksilver, rock-salt, and tincal, or crude borax, are likewise among the mineral productions of this country; the last is found in inexhaustible quantities.

The manufactures of Thibet are principally shawls and woollen cloth. The exports, which go chiefly to China and Bengal, consist of gold-dust, diamonds, pearl, coral, musk, rock-salt, woollen cloth, and lamb-skins: in return for which, silk, satin, gold and silver brocade, tea, tobacco, and furs of various kinds, are received from China; and from Bengal, the productions of that country, and a variety of English commodities and manufactures.

The people are rather stout and hardy and of a ruddy complexion, for the mountain breezes bestow health and vigour. They are of various distinct tribes, little known. The language is the same which is used on the frontiers of China.

The people of Thibet have made some progress towards civilization, but the sciences are neglected. The literature is chiefly connected with the religion, and, together with the language, is of Hindoo origin. The houses are meanly constructed, and built of rough stones, with a few apertures to admit light. Mutton forms a common article of food; and tea is a favourite beverage. The people may, in general, be described as mild and gentle, and, though sunk in superstitions, free from many of the sanguinary customs of the Hindoos.

The Thibetians are said to reverse the general practice of the east in polygamy; though it is probably related without much foundation, that wives are permitted to have several husbands. The dead are buried, burned, thrown into a stream, or exposed in the open air to be devoured by beasts.

Thibet is remarkable as the chief seat of a religion which prevails over a large portion of Central Asia. The system is that known under the title of Buddha, its founder, and of the Lama, its sovereign head; while in China the same worship is denominated that of Fo, and in Tartary is called Shamanism. It had its origin in Hindoostan, though now nearly expelled thence by the rival system of Brahma; from which it is generally supposed to have separated as a schism, though others conceive it to have been the parent superstition. The doctrine of transmigration is alike held under both religions; but in that of Buddha it is converted from a speculative belief into a powerful engine of practical influence. As soon as the Lama dies, the priests, by supposed celestial indications, discover an infant into whom his soul is supposed to have transmigrated. This person is immediately exalted into the character of Lama, and in his name all the civil and ecclesiastical affairs of the state are administered; and such is the sanctity attached to his character, that it is pretended a heavenly odour is exhaled from his whole body; that flowers grow beneath his footsteps; and that in the most parched desert springs flow at his command. In Thibet and the bordering regions of Tartary, every great district has its Lama; but the chief of these spiritual sovereigns is the Grand Lama, who resides at Lassa; next to him is the Teshoo Lama, resident at Teshoo Loomboo.

As the sovereignty centres in the Lama, so the nobility is formed by the monks called jelums or gylongs. The monastic principle exists under the Buddhist system in its utmost rigour, accompanied by the same usages of seclusion and celibacy which distinguish it in the Catholic church. These habits being adopted by the most celebrated characters both in church and state, the idea of dignity is exclusively centred in them, and those of degradation and vulgarity are attached to marriage. The priests reside in large mansions, much the handsomest in the country, and uniting the character of convents and palaces. The monks in the villages bordering on India are represented as a dirty, greasy, good-humoured, happy class of persons, who do not think it inconsistent with their vocation to carry on a good deal of worldly traffic. In the great central establishment, more dignity of character is preserved, and the obligations imposed by their situation appear to be strictly regarded. On the whole, their deportment is represented as humane and obliging; on the part of superiors unassuming, and respectful on that of inferiors.

The ceremonies of the Buddhist religion bear a striking resemblance to those

of the Catholic, insomuch that many of the missionaries found it scarcely possible to discover any distinction. This has even been ascribed by some to a mixture with the votaries of the Nestorian heresy, which was spread through the East. A favourite part of the service consists of music, less remarkable for its harmony than for the employment of every means of raising as great a noise as possible. The priests assume the whole business of prayer. They sell a certain number of prayers, which are written out and attached to the cylinder of a mill, and every turn is supposed to constitute a valid prayer. Some are moved by water.

Notwithstanding the difference between the religions of this country and Hindoostan, many of the temples of Thibet are crowded with Hindoo idols; and the seats of Indian pilgrimage, particularly Benares, Juggernaut, and Sagur, are devoutly visited by votaries from the dominions of the Grand Lama. On their part, the Hindoos pay a deep religious veneration to the lofty snowy peaks and the lonely mountain lakes of this elevated neighbourhood. Among the former, Chumularee, on the Bootan frontier, and among the latter Manasarovara, hold the preeminence.

Lassa, the capital spiritual and temporal, "the Rome of Central Asia,” is situated in the finest part of Thibet, an extended valley bordered by stupendous mountain ranges. The winters are severe; but from April to October, notwithstanding occasional cold blasts, the climate is warm; rice, the vine, and other fine fruits come to maturity. The city, independent of its chief ornament, which is the temple of Pootala, is represented as handsome and opulent. In the surrounding plain are twenty-two other temples, all richly adorned, and of which those of Sera and Bhraeboung are described almost to rival Pootala. The entire number of priests and monks maintained at the expense of government is stated at 84,000. Lassa is the seat of the grand or sovereign Lama, from whom all the priests and sovereigns of that denomination, throughout Thibet and Tartary, receive their investiture. He ranked, also, till lately, as the civil ruler of an extent of country about 300 miles in length, and composed of the best territory in this region; but the Chinese, after expelling the Nepaulese invaders, have established at Lassa a military commander and a civil governor, and virtually annexed it to their empire. They rule it, however, with a mild sway, leaving all the ecclesiastical institutions undisturbed, and in full possession of their ample endowments; and the tribute, conveyed by an annual embassy to Peking, is extremely moderat

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Teshoo Loomboo is the seat of a Lama, second in rank to that of Pootala, but is rendered interesting to us by its close vicinity to the Bengal frontier, from which it is only separated by the mountain district of Bootan. About 400 mansions combine to form a large monastery, the walls of which are built of stone, the roofs of coloured wood, and crowned with numerous gilded canopies and turrets. cording to the usual system, it is built under the shade of a high rock with a southern exposure, and looks down upon the great river Sanpoo, or Burrampooter, whose course is here diversified by numerous islands, through which it flows in deep and narrow channels. The number of monks and gylongs, the sole inhabitants of this monastic capital, amounted, in 1783, to 3700.

LITTLE THIBET.

LITTLE THIBET lies to the north of Hindoostan, south of Little Bucharia, east of Cashmere and Kaschgur, and west of Thibet, from which it is separated by the Kara Koorum ridge, a branch of the great Thsoung-ling range. It is a high and rugged region, surrounded on all sides by vast mountains, from which flow the head streams of the Indus.

The chief town is Leh, or Ladak, situated on the river of the same name, at the point where, being joined by a river flowing in an opposite direction, the united streams take the name of the Indus. It is the seat of a considerable trade, being the chief place of transit for the caravans, on both sides of the Indus, from Thibet, Hindoostan, and Cabul, to Yarkand and Little Bucharia. Near the source of the Ladak River is Gortope, a great market for shawl wool, which is collected

here from the adjoining districts, and sent from hence to Cashmere; it is situated in the midst of a vast plain covered with large flocks of sheep, goats, and yaks. About 100 miles to the south-east, of Gortope, are the lakes of Rawan, Hrad, and Manasarovara: the latter is an object of reverential pilgrimage from all parts of Hindoostan. The few who can overcome the tremendous obstacles encountered in the way, consider all their sins as forgiven, and an entrance into Paradise as secured. But little is known of this region: the inhabitants are said to be a Tartar race, whose religion is that of the Grand Lama. They appear to be subject to China.

CHINA.

THIS vast empire, containing the greatest amount of population, and perhaps also of wealth, united under one government, occupies a large portion of the south-east of Asia.

The Chinese empire, stretching from 18° to 56° of north latitude, and from 70° to 140° of east longitude, covers an area of about 5,350,000 square miles, or onetenth of the whole land-surface of the earth. The population of this vast region, according to the most probable modern computation, is about 200,000,000, as follows:

Of this vast expanse of territory, China proper, Mantchooria, and the eastern part of Little Bucharia, form the political China of the imperial administration. The other regions are merely tributaries or protected states; the petty chiefs of Thibet, the country of Bootan, and the kingdoms of Corea and Loo Choo, belong to the latter class. The ruling race is the Mantchoo, which over-ran and subdued China near two centuries ago. The Mantchoo is the language of the court, and of a rich literature.

China proper, now exclusively under consideration, may be generally stated as extending from 20° to 41° north latitude, and from 101° to 1220 of east longitude. This makes 1260 geographical miles in length, by 1050 miles in breadth. It is divided into eighteen provinces, the majority of which are in extent and population equal to some of the most powerful monarchies of Europe.

The face of the country is much diversified, though the greater part of it is level, intersected by numerous rivers, canals, and occasional mountain chains, of which one of the most important appears to be a continuation of the great Himmaleh range, extending eastward to the shores of the Pacific ocean. The chief rivers of China, the Hoang Ho and Yang-tse Kiang, rank among the most important in Asia; they both have their sources among the mountains of Thibet, and after a course of near 2000 miles, discharge their mighty waters into the ocean, separated by an interval of 160 miles. The principal lakes of China are the Tonting, about 300 miles in circumference, and covered with a numerous population who subsist by fishing; and the Poy-ang is surrounded by picturesque and finely wooded hills. The other lakes are of much less magnitude.

The climate of China varies according to the situation of the places. Toward the north it is cold, in the middle mild, and in the south hot. The soil is, either by nature or art, fruitful of everything that can minister to the necessities, conveniences, or luxuries of life. This country produces all the fruits common to the tropical and temperate countries. The camphor, tallow, and cinnamon trees are common in the fields and gardens. The most celebrated production, however, is the tea plant, which grows wild, but is much improved by careful culture. It is a shrub 5 or 6 feet in height, producing leaves of different flavour, according to the soil. This is so extensively used in China, that although European and American

traders take annually from Canton upwards of sixty millions of pounds weight, it is said, that were the foreign exportation to cease altogether, it would not sensibly lower the price in that country.

China produces, it is said, all the metals and minerals that are known in the world. White copper, called by the Chinese peton, is peculiar to that country; but we know of no extraordinary quality which it possesses. Tutenag is another peculiar metal. Their gold mines, therefore, are partially and slightly worked; and the currency of that metal is supplied by the grains which the people find in the sand of rivers and mountains. The silver specie is furnished from the mines of Honan. Coal is abundant.

There is not, and perhaps never was, on the face of the earth, a government more purely and entirely despotic than the Chinese. No power, honor, or distinction exists, except that which centres in, and emanates from the sovereign. No distinctions are owned between man and man, except those conferred by office; and to these, the highest and the lowest are permitted equally to aspire. This supreme power of the monarch is claimed for him as the representative of Deity on earth.

Although, however, the despotism of China is thus entirely raised above any direct and positive check, it is yet in practice the most mild and protecting of any that exists. The monarch is held within a circle of laws, institutions, and ideas, by transgressing which, he would lose the very basis on which his authority rests. The doctrine, that he is the son and vicegerent of Deity, implies that he will use this high descent and power in securing prosperity to the nation over whom he holds a higher than earthly sway; and this is so fully recognised, that, even when his people are suffering under evils of nature, famine, earthquake, or inundation, he takes the blame, humbles himself, fasts, and strips himself of his costly attire, as a penitent under whose sins his people are groaning. The paternal character equally implies an anxious concern for the welfare of his people, who, amid the veneration with which they view these relations, are not forgetful of the accompanying obligations, or indisposed to revolt when they suffer severely from the non-observance of them.

In this system, the fundamental, and, certainly, highly laudable maxim has been, to make knowledge the sole ground of official rank and public employment. The examinations for this purpose are conducted with the greatest apparent impartiality, and, as seems to be generally believed, with much real fairness. Strict precautions are adopted for this purpose; such as, that every piece of composition that is to be judged, must be given in sealed and anonymous.

The laws of China have been compiled not with any large or statesman-like views, but with a minute and elaborate care to lay down the various descriptions of offence, and apportion to each a suitable punishment. The cane is the grand instrument of government; and all China has been compared to a school, kept in awe by the rod of a master. For its application, the law specifies two distinct dimensions of length and thickness, and more pointedly fixes the number of blows to be inflicted on the offender. For crimes of a deeper die than those which the cane can chastise, banishment in different degrees is inflicted; and for those still more flagrant, death is awarded.

The military force of China has been represented as amounting to about 800,000. The greater part are a mere militia, in which the population, when called upon, are liable to serve. Their appearance and habits are most unmilitary, and they are scarcely called out unless for purposes of police; to pursue robbers, and pass muster on state occasions. Their paper helmets, wadded gowns, quilted petticoats, and clumsy satin boots, exhibit nothing of the aspect of war.

Its appears from ancient records that the Chinese and Tartars made use not only of gunpowder, but even of something resembling cannon; but artillery does not at present constitute any part of the effective force of the empire.

The Chinese government have very numerous barges, for the conveyance of tribute, and other accommodations; also a few armed vessels to prevent smuggling and piracy; but nothing which can be called a navy. An American frigate would beat the whole of their maritime force.