Standard Wine 1707. This bushel agreed in capacity with Queen Elizabeth's bushel (21504 cubic inches). Illustrations of other ancient obsolete standards have been given in the 7th Annual Report of the Warden of the Standards for 1873. Fig 7.--STANDARD WINE GALLON OF QUEEN ANNE, 1707. (size.) was A new standard measure, made of bronze, deposited in the Exchequer in 1707, of which Fig. 7 is an illustration (see "United States," p. 35). 3. LOCAL STANDARDS. The standards hitherto described belong to the State Local or Inspectors' and (inter alia) are used in verifying other subsidiary Standards. standards known as Local Standards or Inspectors' Standards, by which are controlled the trade weights and measures—as those used in shops, &c. Such Local Standards are required by the Act, of 1878, to be verified by the Board of Trade; the weights once every five years and the measures once every ten years. Such comparison is made on the application of any local authority requiring it, either at the Standards Office, Westminster, at the Royal Irish Constabulary Depôt, Phoenix Park, Dublin, the General Assembly Hall, High Street, Edinburgh, or elsewhere. The form and material of all local standards are set out in detail in an official paper (A 3.-1885) issued to Local Authorities. Generally the standards are made of brass, bronze, or gun-metal; the measures of capacity, from a bushel to a quarter-gill, are of cylindrical form, as shown on the right hand side of Figure (p. 47); the avoirdupois weights (56 lbs. to dr.) are either bell shaped, or of spherical shape, as shown in the middle of the illustration (Fig. 12). A list of denominations of trade weights of the Imperial system is given in Appendix I.; but local inspectors are generally supplied with the following standards of trade weights and measures: Avoirdupois weights-56, 28, 14, 7, 4, 2, 1, lbs. ; 8, 4, 2, 1, ounces; 8, 4, 2, 1, 1⁄2, drams. Troy weights, decimal series, 500 ounces down—10, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0·4, 0·3, 0·2, 0·1, to 0·001 ounce troy. Decimal grain weights-4,000, 2,000, 1,000, 500, 300, 200, 100, 50, 30, 20, 10, 5 to 0·1 grain. Apothecaries' weights-10, 8, 6, 4, 2, 1, ounces; 4 drachms to grain. Measures of capacity-Bushel, bushel, peck, gallon, gallon, quart, pint, pint, gill, ¦ gill, † gill. Apothecaries' measures-From 10 fluid ounces to 10 minims (glass). Measures of length.-A yard, subdivided into feet and inches, the inch being divided into 12 duodecimal, 10 decimal, and 16 binary equal parts. In large manufacturing centres the local authorities provide other denominations of Inspectors' Standards required in their district. When standards are verified for the use of a local authority, an indenture or certificate of verification is issued bearing a seal. The old Indenture Exchequer seal was engraved " Sigillium officii recepte scaccarii regio in Anglia" (Official seal of the Receipt of the King's Exchequer). The present Indenture bears the seal of the Board of Trade; and all local standards have stamped on them the Board of Trade stamp-Crown, Sovereign's initials, date of verification, and the portcullis. Since the reign of Queen Elizabeth the local standards have always been provided out of local rates or taxes, and not by the State. In ancient times, however, local standards were provided by the State; thus Henry V. (Exchequer Record. Roll Issue. Michaelmas. 9 Henry V) (see Devon's Issues of the Exchequer. London, 1837, p. 371), ordered 100 various weights to be made for the King's benefit and use of his people. The Act 11 Henry VII. c. 4 (1495) required that one of every weight and measure, according to the Exchequer standard made of brass, should be delivered to 43 cities and towns named in the Act. The following is an illustration of a weight supplied in 1495; it bears the words "Henricus Septimus" in high relief with the Tudor Rose on one side and the Westminster portcullis on the other : Fig. 8.-14 LB. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT (temp. HEN. VII. (size.) In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, also, by a Royal Proclamation, Roll of 17th June 1588, standards were ordered to be delivered to 58 cities and towns named therein. In ancient times the old standards were generally melted down to make new standards, and hence, so far as can be ascertained, none of the local standards in use before those of Henry VII. are now in existence. A collection of old local standards at Winchester is interesting, as it includes standard troy weights dated 1588, being the year in which Elizabeth granted a charter to Winchester, and a Winchester bushel sent to the Corporation from the Exchequer in 1487. The old "Winchester Bushel" was so called because the standard bushel was ordered by King Edgar to be kept there. The collection at Winchester also includes other standards of 1487, 1601, 1700, and particularly a 56 lb. weight, supposed to be of the time of Edward III., which was found in the old muniment room over the West Gate. There is also an interesting collection of old local standards at the museum at Norwich. An Act of 1670 (Charles II.) enacted that a standard bushel of correct measure should be chained in the market place of all market towns in order that persons might test their measures. Eastern origin. 4. PROBABLE ORIGIN OF OUR ANCIENT SYSTEMS OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Our units of weights and measures, like those of other European countries, appear to have come from the East, through Greece and Rome, and their origin is almost pre-historic. In Holy Writ, we have the earliest references to the use of weights and measures; as for instance, Genesis XXIII., 16; 1 Kings VII., 15; 2 Chron. III., 15; Isaiah XL., 12. In estimating the measures of the past, if we believe that the great Pyramid of Jeezeh, which still exists, and which was built before the art of writing was communicated to mankind, was really designed for the purpose of perpetuating the standards of measure by its astronomical proportions and bearings, as Mr. John Taylor ("Battle of the Standards," 1864), and Professor Piazzi Smyth, F.R.S. ("Life and Work at the Great Pyramid," 1867), would almost convince us, and that our measures have been derived from those of the Great Pyramid; then, our measures have an origin more remote than those of any other country. Dr. Arbuthnot (" Tables of Ancient Coins," 1754), says Josephus "tells you that Cain was the first monied man, "that he taught his band luxury and rapine, and broke |