with the Isthmian Canal Commission and the Smithsonian Institution for geologic studies in the Canal Zone.

The broad pur

Development of Survey's Functions. poses of the Survey's work have remained constant throughout its history, but its functions and the manner of their performance have undergone many changes from time to time. These will here be briefly outlined, detailed discussion of the development of particular activities being reserved for the following chapter.

The organic act of 1879, together with the amending act of 1882, specified four distinct functions to be performed by the Survey-the geological survey of the public lands, the classification of the public lands, the examination of the geological structure and the mineral resources and products of the national domain, and the preparation of the geologic map of the United States.

At first the Survey took the position that by the term "classification of the public lands," Congress did not intend to imply a detailed survey of the individual tracts of land in the public domain, with respect to their inclusion under the provisions of one or another of the public land laws, but merely a general survey of the soil and mineral characteristics of the lands. In effect, therefore, this portion of the law was regarded as adding little if anything to the clauses calling for the geological survey of the public lands and for the examination of the mineral resources and products of the national domain, and in this interpretation Congress apparently acquiesced, as it was followed by the Survey for many years without evoking any change in the phraseology of the successive appropriation acts.

The authority to prepare a geologic map of the country was construed by the Survey as giving authority to prepare also a topographic map; the position being taken that a geologic map could properly be prepared only if a topographic map were available as a base.

In accordance with the interpretation of the statutes the early

work of the Survey fell into three classes: (1) topographic surveys; (2) geologic surveys in areas of economic importance X or theoretical interest; (3) research in geologic theory and the theory of related sciences.

In 1882 the scope of the Survey's functions was enlarged by a provision in the appropriation act for the year 1882-3 that "not to exceed ten thousand dollars of the amount appropriated may be applied under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior to the procuring of statistics in relation to mines and mining other than gold and silver and in making chemical analysis of iron, coal and oil." Almost immediately upon its organization the Survey had undertaken to collect statistics of mines and mining in coöperation with the Tenth Census. The legislation quoted placed the work upon a permanent basis and permitted the publication by the Survey in 1883 of a volume entitled "Mineral Resources of the United States," comprising over 800 pages of statistical matter for the calendar year 1882. An appropriation for the preparation of this report has since been granted every year, and the report has come to be one of the best known of the Survey's publications.

Congressional Investigation of 1886. The Survey had been in existence but little over five years when its plans and methods became the subject of 'a sweeping inquiry by a joint congressional commission. The rapidly growing appropriations for several large scientific bureaus of the government-the Geological Survey, the Signal Service (which then performed the functions since vested in the Weather Bureau), and the Hydrographic Office-became, beginning in 1883, a subject of discussion in Congress, and in 1884 provision was made in the sundry civil appropriation act (23 Stat. L., 219) for a joint congressional commission to "consider the present organizations" of the bureaus mentioned, "with the view to secure greater efficiency and economy in the administration of the public service in said Bureaus." The commission appointed held numerous hearings in 1885 and 1886, Major

8

Powell, the Director, appearing for the Survey. The main questions regarding the Survey's work raised in hearings related to the value of topographic maps executed on so small a scale as was then employed by the Survey, the rate of progress toward completion and publication of the Survey's geological maps, and the propriety of the wide scope of the Survey's scientific investigations and publications.

While the minority of the commission, consisting of two of the six members, submitted a report criticizing the Survey on the score of costliness, slowness and lack of practical applicability of its work, the majority expressed the opinion that the Survey as a whole was "well conducted, and with economy and care, and discloses excellent administrative and business ability on the part of its chief." They reported, however, in favor of restricting the printing or engraving of "the scientific reports known as Monographs and Bulletins of the Geological Survey" by requiring that specific and detailed estimates should be made therefor and specific appropriations made in pursuance of such estimates. This provision was accordingly incorporated in the sundry civil appropriation act adopted shortly afterward (act of August 4, 1886, 24 Stat. L., 255).

In 1888 the appropriation for the operating expenses of the Survey, which had up that time been granted as a lump sum, was itemized under eight heads; and of a total appropriation of slightly over $737,240, $40,000 was appropriated for "paleontologic researches" and $17,000 for "chemical and physical researches." Thus, within two years after the commission had made its report, Congress by express action sustained the Survey in its paleontologic and chemical and physical research, the utility of which had been questioned by

8 Major Powell's testimony furnishes a mine of information relative to the early operations of the Survey. All the testimony taken by the commission was printed as Senate Misc. Doc. No. 82, 49th Congress, Ist Session (Vol. 4 of Misc. Docs.).

9 Senate Report No. 1285, 49th Congress, 1st Session.

the minority of the commission, and these provisions became permanent features of the appropriation acts of the Survey.

The Powell Irrigation Survey, 1888-1890. The Director of the Survey, Major Powell, had for some years been deeply interested in the question of reclamation of the arid public lands by irrigation. In 1878 he had rendered to the Commissioner of the General Land Office a "report on the land of the arid region of the United States with a more detailed account of the land of Utah." In discussing the methods to be employed for the reclamation of the arid lands, he had stated that it involved engineering problems requiring for their solution the greatest skill, as well as the employment of large capital and possibly government aid, if not direct government construction. By 1888 the continued appropriation and reduction to private ownership of the readily available streams in the arid region, which he had foreseen, resulted in the authorization by Congress of investigation by the Geological Survey of "that portion of the arid regions of the United States where agriculture is carried on by means of irrigation, as to the natural advantages for the storage of water for irrigation purposes, with the practicability of constructing reservoirs, together with the capacity of the streams and the cost of construction and capacity of reservoirs, and such other facts as bear on the question of storage of water for irrigating purposes." By an appropriation act passed a few months subsequently and by one passed in 1889, a total of $350,000 was appropriated for the conduct of this investigation.

The act of October 2, 1888 (25 Stat. L., 526), however, in addition to making appropriation for the investigation, directed the Survey to designate all lands which might be used "for sites for reservoirs, ditches, or canals for irrigation purposes, and all the lands made susceptible of irrigation by such reservoirs, ditches, or canals;" and it was provided that all such lands "are from this time henceforth hereby reserved from sale as the property of the United States, and shall not be subject after the passage of this act to entry, settlement or

occupation until further provided by law." Thus, for the first time, the Survey was vested with powers of direct administration with respect to the public domain.

Immediately upon the enactment of this legislation, the Survey organized a large force, composed principally of topographic engineers, and undertook a vigorous prosecution of the project entrusted to it. Within a little more than a year after its organization this branch of the Survey, which is commonly referred to as the Powell Irrigation Survey, segregated 127 reservoir sites, having an area of over 2,500 square miles, and, in addition, over 30,000,000 acres of irrigable land located in five distinct basins.10

The sweeping action of the Survey provoked a wide-spread protest from persons in the arid region who were adversely affected and as a result a special committee of the Senate was appointed to investigate the entire subject. The report of the majority of the committee, rendered in 1890, severely criticized the policy adopted by the Survey.11 By the act of August 30, 1890 (26 Stat. L., 391), the whole of the act of 1888 was accordingly repealed except as to reservoir sites, the segregation and reservation of which was expressly continued. The appropriations made in 1888 and 1889 for the survey of the arid lands were also discontinued.

Though it may be said that the operations of the Powell Irrigation Survey thus met with congressional disapproval, the actual results achieved by it in topographic maps of the arid regions and in stream measurements constituted a work of enduring value and furnished the basis upon which the subsequent work of the Survey in connection with reclamation was largely based.

Whether because of the disfavor with which its operations

10 The reports on the operations of the Powell Irrigation Survey were published in separate volumes of the annual report of the Director of the Survey for the fiscal years 1889 to 1892, inclusive. The figures are taken from the volume for 1889, page viii.

11 The report of the committee together with the record of the hearings held by it was printed as Senate Report No. 928, 51st Congress, Ist Session.