respectively, 47, 55, and 58, and the corresponding number of attendants to 82, 64, and 102.

(B) The University of Gottenborg (Göteborgs Högskola), having from the beginning placed itself under Government control (statutes of 1889 confirmed by the Government), has, in consequence of this, received (in 1893), within certain limits, the right of holding examinations for university degrees.

The board, consisting of nine directors, is appointed in the following manner: The president, as mentioned above, is nominated by the Government for such a time as in each case may be decided, 4 members are chosen by the town council of Gottenborg, 1 by the Royal Society of Science and Literature in Gottenborg, 1 by the directors of the Gottenborg Museum, and 1 by the ordinary members of the united staffs of the higher classical and modern secondary schools of Gottenborg, all (excepting the president) for three years at a time; the rector of the university is a member ex officio. At present only such teaching is carried on as can be considered as belonging to the faculty of humanistics.. Those partaking of the instruction are partly regular students, who have been matriculated after passing the common university entrance examination, and partly specials students, who by permission of the different teachers, and on payment of special fees, attend certain lectures or exercises, and partly auditors, who attend the public lectures free of charge. The number of regular students at the university, during the spring term of 1903, amounted to 85, of special students to 117, and of auditors at the public lectures to 1,576.

4. TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

Technical education at the present moment holds a very high position in Sweden. With regard to the considerable distances, it were, however, to be desired that schools for elementary instruction within this department became more numerous than now is the case, and also the higher institutions stand in need of being enlarged. Higher scientific instruction in technical subjects is imparted at the Technical High School in Stockholm and at the higher division of Chalmers' Polytechnical College in Gottenborg. In the second rank follow the lower division of the above-mentioned Chalmers' College, the five technical colleges mentioned further on, and a special technical school at Eskilstuna. A multifarious instruction and education are offered at the Technical School in Stockholm; finally, there are about forty lower technical schools in smaller towns.

The Technical High School includes special divisions for: (A) machine design and mechanical technology, with a triennial or quadrennial course, or else naval engineering; (B) electrotechnics; (C) chemical technology, with a triennial course; (D) mining, divided into classes for mining mechanics, with a quadrennial course; metallurgy and smelting, with a triennial or quadrennial course, and mining proper, with a triennial or quadrennial course; (E) architecture, with a quadrennial course and the instruction so arranged that the pupils after three years' study have the right to proceed with their studies at the Academy of Arts, and (F) civil engineering, with a quadrennial course.

The total number of regular and special pupils was, during the years 1896-1902 (spring terms), respectively 305, 277, 283, 309, 360, 373, and 393. The number of graduates, during the years 1896-1902, was, respectively, 107, 67, 79, 88, 87, 89, and 96.

An institution for the testing of materials, with a director of its own, was established in 1896 in connection with the mechanical laboratory. Its object is to test metals, building stone, cement, and above all the strength of various building materials; and such tests are made also for the public according to fees and regulations fixed by Government.

Chalmers' Polytechnical College in Gottenborg is divided into a lower division with a triennial course; and a higher division with a triennial course and subdivided into five sections or professional schools: One for mechanics, one for electrotechnics, one for technical chemistry, one for the art of building, and one forming a special school for shipbuilding. The number of students during the spring term of 1903 was 431.

The five technical colleges impart both theoretical and practical instruction in the elementary branches of technical knowledge to those who intend to devote themselves to industrial pursuits. The course of instruction covers three years; the school year consists of thirty-six weeks. The minimum age of entrance is fixed at 14. The admission examination embraces Swedish, mathematics, history, and geography. Youths who have passed the fifth class of a State secondary school with certificates of knowledge in these subjects, are exempt from the admission examination within a space of two years after leaving the college. The admission fee is $2.50; the term fee, $2.50 at most. The instruction is at each of these schools imparted by 4 lectors, a workshop foreman, and a certain number of associate teachers. The number of pupils amounted during the spring term of 1903 to 416 in all the five schools together.

According to the statutes in force, the instruction shall comprise: Mathematics, viz, (a) arithmetic, algebra, planimetry, stereometry, the theory of series and logarithms, plane trigonometry, and the first principles of analytical geometry; (b) descriptive geometry, together with geometrical drawing; (c) practical geometry, surveying, leveling, with drawing and field exercises. Mechanics: (a) The laws of the equilibrium and movement of bodies; (b) the theory of mechanics, machine drawing and design of simple machines and parts of machines; (c) mechanical technology. Natural philosophy: Experimental physics with reference to the most important applications of that science in industries. Chemistry, inorganic and organic, with laboratory work and chemical technology. Mineralogy and geognosy. Swedish and German, English or French, according to the final decision of the different boards of directors. Bookkeeping and the science of commerce. Building: freehand drawing and modeling; work in the workshops. Gymnastics and exercise of arms.

The Technical School of Eskilstuna, opened under another name in 1855, was enlarged in 1872, and when, in 1888, the town council had voted a grant to a professional school for finer cutlery and metal industries, these establishments were united in 1890 under the present designation.

In the older division, the Sunday and evening school, the instruction embraces: Mathematics as at the technical colleges, with the exception of the first principles of analytical geometry; mechanics, natural philosophy, and chemistry, as at the technical colleges, chemical technology excepted; Swedish, with composition; German or English; copy writing; freehand drawing and modeling; bookkeeping, to meet the requirements of industries; building. In the professional school for cutlery and metal industries: Freehand drawing, with the principles of style; modeling; wood carving; engraving; metal casting; enchasing; embossing; etching; galvanizing; forging; filing, and turning.

The Technical School of Stockholm, opened as a private school in 1844, has since been often enlarged and reorganized, and finally, in 1860, became a State school. It was thoroughly remodeled in 1878 and 1879, when its activity was restricted within the limits of purely technical instruction, and when a higher industrial art school and a professional building school were added. The instruction of the higher industrial art school has been grouped in two sections-one for industrial arts (with five professional divisions), the other a training school for teachers of drawing, writing, and modeling. In 1890 was added a professional school of mechanics with seven professional divisions.

The school work is carried on in five head departments: (I) The technical evening and Sunday school, (II) the technical school for females, (III) the higher industrial art school, (IV) the professional building school, and (V) the professional school of mechanics. Besides, instruction is imparted in the principles of style, art needlework, professional and decorative painting, photography, form anatomy with drawing, a course for electrical fitters, and gymnastics.

During the school year 1901-2 there were 2,171 students, a considerable number, testifying strongly to the importance of this school. The number of teachers was 92, of whom 32 in ordinary. At present a plan is being worked out with the purpose of a further extension and comprehensive changes in the organization of the school, chiefly by dividing it into several educational institutes in different parts of the city.

Finally there are the lower technical schools—at present 41 in number-whose activity varies according to the special branches of industry prevalent in the districts where they are located. They are supported mainly by the communities of these places, but stand under State inspection, and also receive State grants, in 1900 to a total amount of $16,000. In 1900 the number of teachers at these schools was 293 and that of the pupils 6,817, of whom 1,275 were females.

5. SWEDISH GYMNASTICS.

The Swedish gymnastics derive their origin from Per Henrik Ling (1776–1839). Before his time, it is true, interest had been awakened in favor of a more thorough exercise of the body, but there existed nothing of gymnastics in the present sense of the term.

According to Ling's idea, the selection and kinds of exercises must be grounded on the requirements of the body itself. The body itself is consequently the object of, as well as the principal instrument or implement for, the performance of the work to be done. In many exercises, however, external implements are also needed, and these have been devised with exclusive regard to obtaining a good result from the necessary exercises. Through the correct use of the implements it becomes increasingly possible to limit more precisely the form and the scope of action of a movement. This limitation has been called localization, sometimes isolation, to distinguish it from a combination of forces which is also necessary to obtain the effect desired. Such combination has been called synergy or cooperation.

What has been done after Ling's death for the consummation of his work has been, for the most part, effected by his immediate successor, Gabriel Branting (1799-1881), and by his son, Hjalmar Ling (1820-1886). Hjalmar Ling represented by very striking drawings, made by himself, thousands of forms of movements, and he formed a collection of these and arranged them, in harmony with his father's plan and views, according to their effect on the organism, into different classes. Ten classes of gymnastic movements are thus shown to exist. Some of these may with advantage be further subdivided into two or more groups. He also drew up lists of movements suited to different ages, and rendered possible pedagogical gymnastics in common schools and in female education.

The movements in each of the above-mentioned classes have been arranged in progression according to the degree of effort they call forth. In practice, movements calling for about the same degree of effort should, out of all the classes, be arranged together for a programme of exercises-a so-called “day's exercise”—for daily use. A number of movements requiring less exertion should be inserted among the specific ones from each class so as to fill out the day's exercise into a complete set of gym

nastie exercises. It is, namely, requisite that every part of the body and the organs in general should receive each its needed share of the day's exercise, which, as a whole and in detail, must be accommodated to the degree of development of the pupils. The number of pupils practicing at one time, which is sometimes rather large, must therefore be divided into several smaller sections, so that those who have attained the same degree of development may practice together.

That a sufficiently great effort may be called forth, and at the same time overstraining prevented, the arrangement of the movements in the day's exercise should, moreover, be such as constantly to promote an equilibrium between respiration, the action of the heart, and muscular work. This is obtained by making the movements act upon the provinces of the different vessels alternately, so as to increase or relax the circulation to and from various parts of the body. In connection with this the rate of breathing must by turns be increased and slackened, while the breathing itself is drawn deeper. Besides the various movements with their different effects a means to this end consists also in a gradually increasing exertion in the day's exercise up to rather beyond the middle, after that in decreasing the exertion more rapidly toward the end; and when the whole day's exercise has been gone through both the action of the heart and the breathing ought to be strong and deep but calm.

The great expectations which Ling entertained in regard to the Central Gymnastic Institute are being regularly and șurely realized. The institute has, during its ninety years' existence, developed to a very considerable extent. All teachers of gymnastics, women as well as men, are trained there for all the educational establishments throughout the country, thus also for the military schools. For this purpose there are a one-year, a two-year, and a three-year course for men and a two-year course for women. The three first-mentioned courses follow one another immediately and are preparatory each for the next; the third year's course is devoted exclusively to instruction in subjects for training in medical gymnastics. The number of pupils at the institute has so increased that at present it amounts to about 115, of whom 55 are women.

In all the State secondary schools of at least five classes in the Kingdom there are well-lighted and airy gymnastic halls, in which the exercises are conducted by teachers trained at the Central Gymnastic Institute. According to the statutes in force, every pupil whom the physician has declared sufficiently strong must practice gymnastics at least half an hour daily, besides which the pupils in the sixth and lower seventh classes must have two hours' instruction per week in fencing.

In all the training colleges for common school teachers a staff of equally welltrained leaders is employed to conduct gymnastic exercises for the future teachers, who, during their four-year course, are also trained to teach gymnastics in the common schools, where gymnastic exercises are a compulsory subject. Also at the people's high schools the introduction of gymnastics has begun in earnest in spite of the entirely private character of those establishments. Ten of these have now their own gymnastic halls. Besides, there exist in the larger towns privately organized gymnastics at so-called gymnastic clubs, as well for women as for men; also for individuals who do not belong to any organized association, but practice gymnastics only for the benefit of their health.

In the army and navy the same system is applied in schools of all grades, for recruits, corporals, noncommissioned and commissioned officers. Lastly, it may be added that everywhere in Sweden the Ling system is followed.