Reviews conducted in this way give pupils valuable bird's-eye views of important subjects and furnish an even more valuable training in the use of books.

A list of the maps in the book will be found in the Index, under the caption "Maps."

BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND OUTSIDE READING

No subject in the schools can be more reinforced by wide reading than history. The books and titles listed under "Recommended Readings," at the close of each Period, have been carefully selected with a view of being serviceable to both teachers and pupils. It will be observed that fiction and poetry find a place therein. It is not assumed that the teacher or pupil will make use of all the reading suggested, but every teacher and pupil should use some of it. The arrangement of the lists of Recommended Readings is, under "History and Biography," roughly, (1) source books; (2) general, simple works covering the whole field; (3) the fuller histories; (4) the standard histories; (5) books on special topics; (6) biography. It will thus be seen that the recommendation is not to read only the books listed first, but to proceed to varied and continued reading judiciously selected from the whole list. The arrangement under "Fiction" and "Poetry" is alphabetical by authors.

If the books are available, outside daily or weekly reading should be assigned; in this way pupils acquire the habit of using books · not an unimportant consideration. They also get another point of view from that of the authors of the text-book, and interest is added to the recitation because of the variety of views presented. Pupils should be encouraged to read widely; the more they saturate themselves with history, the better. The teacher will be repaid if she takes time to train children in the use of Tables of Contents and of Indexes.

as

Teachers are urged to read to the class short extracts · episodes, incidents, etc., from such historians as Parkman, Fiske, Rhodes, Winsor a means of arousing interest in outside reading and to cultivate a taste for history. Stevenson's Poems of American History is a serviceable anthology which will be found to contain most of the poems recommended for reading.

ILLUSTRATIONS

"Merely looking at pictures is not studying them. They cannot be seen as a whole. They must be analyzed. Have a definite plan for studying each illustration. Do not merely tack one bit of information on to another. Observe how the teacher of English develops a description. A proper use of illustrations in history should help materially the work in English in more ways than one. The pupil should grow rapidly in his ability to analyze quickly and interpret correctly maps, drawings, and other illustrations met elsewhere." 1

Teachers should encourage pupils to find illustrations in other histories and in magazines, to supplement those in this book. It will prove convenient in future work, if notes are kept of the most helpful of these sources. 1 From American History to 1763: A Catalogue of Slides and Photographs with Study Notes, New York State Education Department, Division of Visual Instruction, Albany, New York, 1911.

The use of drawings, approximately correct, on the blackboard is invaluable; for example, a lock on the Erie Canal; the Eads Jetties; or the Monitor and its revolving turret.

Notes on the Full-Page Illustrations

Columbus at the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella. (Brozik.) Facing page 1. "Study the figure and bearing of Columbus. Observe the close attention given by the Queen and others to what is being said. The Queen's advisers, several of whom are present at this conference, were beginning to favor the idea of Columbus, and some of them frankly advised the Queen to authorize the expedition. Observe that Ferdinand does not appear in this picture. He was at no time as favorable to the idea as was Isabella. On the table and in the hands of an attendant are jewels, which, according to an oft-repeated story, the Queen pledged for the expense of the voyage a story not resting on contemporary evidence, and one that is extremely improbable, still one that illustrates well the interest of the Queen. Notwithstanding the fact that the Queen was completely won over to the cause of Columbus, the conference was broken up without any favorable action. The terms offered by Columbus were not accepted, and for a third time he determined to seek aid in a foreign land." i The Declaration of Independence. (Trumbull.) Page 150.

The scene is the hall of the Continental Congress, in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, as it was at the time. John Hancock, President of the Congress, is seated at the table, and in front of him stand the Committee of Five selected to draft the Declaration, — John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert R. Livingston, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin. Note the earnest dignity of all the participants. It can be seen at a glance that they realize the far-reaching importance of their act. On the day of signing John Adams wrote: "I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward, forevermore." After Congress passed the Declaration it was "Resolved, that copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions, and committees or councils of safety, and to the several commanding officers of the Continental troops; that it be proclaimed in each of the United States, and at the head of the army." The resulting public celebrations in Philadelphia, New York, and throughout the country showed the jubilation of the people over the event.

The Fiftieth Anniversary of the Battle of Bull Run. July 21, 1911. (Photograph.) Page 349.

This occasion was probably the only instance in history where survivors of both sides in a battle met and exchanged friendly greetings on the same field fifty years after the day of actual combat. The illustration

1 From American History to 1763.

shows the Union veterans on the right, and the Confederates, under a flag bearing the Virginia coat of arms, on the left. The troops in the middle distance are United States cavalry and Virginia militia. Under the trees in the background, planted in 1865 by soldiers of the Army of the Potomac, around a rude monument then dedicated to the memory of comrades who fell at the first battle of Bull Run, public exercises of welcome were held just previous to the scene here shown. Later, in the town of Manassas, President Taft and the Governor of Virginia addressed the veterans of the two armies, some six hundred in number. By an interesting coincidence the Union veteran who originated this semi-centennial anniversary was, at the close of the war, the signal officer of Sherman's army at Raleigh, North Carolina, who, on April 26, 1865, sent the last signal message of the Civil War - "Peace and Good-Will."

The Completion of the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific Railroads. Page 402.

The first transcontinental rail line was completed by the meeting of the tracks of the Union Pacific and of the Central Pacific on the Northern shore of the Great Salt Lake (at Promontory Point, Utah). While the final spike was being driven home, this being reported by telegraph, corresponding blows were struck on the bell of the city hall in San Francisco, and at the last blow a cannon was fired. There were also celebrations in Omaha, Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, and other large cities. Bret Harte's poem, "What the Engines Said," was written under the inspiration of the event. All these points show that the people foresaw the immense value of the new railroad to the West. The route of the railroad followed quite closely the trail used successively by Indians, fur traders, and emigrants to California and Oregon. During the construction of the road there were frequent attacks by Indians, and Government troops protected the builders. When first projected, the scheme of a railroad to the Pacific had been called nonsense; but in 1857 President Buchanan advocated it as a means of holding the Pacific Coast people in the Union; it was this sentiment that led to the name Union Pacific. Note that an undertaking originally looked upon in this light, and even perhaps as a military necessity, is now regarded as a great commercial highway.

THE RELATION OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY

It may not be necessary here to emphasize the intimate relation between history and geography; for teachers of history increasingly recognize, in their schoolroom practice, the influence of geography on human affairs. In the expanding demands upon the schools, it is becoming more and more necessary to economize in the teaching process. The review of geographical facts from the study of history is one means of practicing this economy. Wall maps and globes should therefore be in constant use, both while the pupil is preparing his lesson and in the recitations. Rapid blackboard mapsketching by the pupils should be encouraged; pupils acquire facility therein if teachers require it. It adds interest to the class work; it aids in making clear historical causes and effects; and it affords opportunity to use the pupil's skill in drawing.

The use of the so-called prepared, progressive maps is a good means of showing the influence of geography upon history; but a better plan still is to have the pupils make their own progressive maps. Important details may be filled in as the study progresses. In this way, numerous series of historical facts may be consecutively treated. Sufficient examples are successive settlements of the several original colonies on the Atlantic Coast, annexations of territory, Western explorations, and campaigns of the Civil War.

MAPS

"It is absolutely essential to the understanding of history that the geography of the sections under consideration be known. Many of the maps are for use not once merely, but can with profit be referred to often. After studying a picture of an object or event, its location should be fixed in mind by reference to the map. After studying a small sectional map, drawn on a large scale, it is specially desirable that the small section be located on a map representing a larger area, in order that a true conception may be gained of relative positions and approximate distances." 1

The Period of Discovery: Chapters I-V

HOW TO TEACH HISTORY BY PERIODS

Aside from the careful study of a few of the greatest discoverers and explorers (Columbus, Magellan, the Cabots, Hudson, Marquette, and La Salle), not much time should be taken for this first Period. If pupils learn to picture to themselves as vividly as possible the actual experiences and difficulties of typical explorers, this whole movement for the exploration of unknown lands will be clear. Let them realize that this universal instinct for finding the unknown not only made possible the discovery and exploration of the New World in the days of old, but in recent times has led to the exploration of the wilds of interior Africa, the penetration of " forbidden lands" in central Asia, and the discovery of the North and South Poles.

Appeal constantly to the imagination of pupils: lead them to picture the conditions in Europe that induced sovereigns to favor and finance these early expeditions of discovery; the courageous figures that led them; the meager equipment of vessels and supplies that made such voyages heroic achievements; the wild, picturesque shores and the silent wilderness that the explorers found here; the hardships and perils that they encountered, and the life and ways of the red men, who at first befriended and then fought them.

Special emphasis should be placed on the study of the typical colonies of Virginia and Massachusetts. A careful reading of the history of the other colonies, followed by class discussion to bring out salient points of likeness and contrast, will usually suffice. The claim of local history, however, will make it advisable to study in some detail the colony in which the pupils are the most interested because of their residence.

The Period of Coloniza

tion: Chap

ters VI-XII

In this study, pupils should picture the conditions in Europe that led to 1 From American History to 1763.

the planting of the several colonies. Have pupils compare the character and motives of the settlers in the different localities, and thus account for the success or failure of each enterprise. They should observe how the characteristics of a single leader—for example, John Smith, Lord Baltimore, or Penn - often affected the entire history of a colony. Especially should they observe the increasing impatience of the colonists with the absolute control of monarchs and proprietary companies, and the growing desire for popular self-government, that ultimately brought about the Revolution.

Pupils should be able to state the principal causes of the war. They should be made to see that many people in England deprecated the oppressive and unjust treatment of the colonists. This treatment was largely due to a few officials in the motherland who had great power; of these, George III was chief.

The Revolution: Chapters XIII

XVI

Pupils should fully realize that the great mass of the colonists were either English or of English descent, and that the war was an unnatural one, for England was the mother country. The campaigns in the North, the Middle States, and the South can best be understood by the constant use of maps. The general plans and purposes of these campaigns should be comprehended, but most of the details may be quickly passed over. The masterly generalship of Washington, in the face of the greatest difficulties and discouragements, the patriotism and devotion of our ancestors who were fighting for a principle, and the aid received by them from France, should be clearly demonstrated. The important results of the war, both to America and to England, should be clearly brought out.

The Forma

tion of the Union:

The successive steps leading to the formation of the Union should be reviewed, the New England Confederacy, the Albany Convention, the Stamp Act, the First Continental Congress, the Second Continental Congress, and the Declaration of Independence (use the Index in the study of these topics). Each step marked a growth away from the mother country and an advance toward self-government. This Period should be studied from the point of view that their experiences when under English rule gave rise to a strong fear of tyranny in the colonies, and that love for their local self-government led the States to adopt the Articles of Confederation.

Chapters

XVII-XIX

The weakness of the Articles should be dwelt upon, so that pupils may understand why there was a need for calling a Convention to frame a new code of laws to remedy these defects. It is important for the pupils to trace the results that followed the weakness of the Articles of Confederation. This will help them to see the relationship between cause and effect; the power to do this should be one of the results of history study. Moreover, this study will throw light on the discussion of present-day problems.

Emphasize the fact that this was a critical period. Point out the difficulties that faced the Constitutional Convention, and bring out the idea that only by a series of compromises was the Constitution framed.