ing corporeal, and one thing corporeal may not be appendant to another.

APPLE. A well known fruit, from which cider is made.

APPOSITION (in Grammar.) The placing two or more substantives together, without any copulative between them, as, Cicero the

orator.

APPRAISING. The valuing or setting a price on goods. An appraiser is one sworn to value goods fairly.

APPREHENSION. The first power of the mind, by which simply contemplates things, without pronouncing any thing upon them.

posed of a mixture of the nitric and muriatic acids, which dissolves gold.

AQUARIUS. The water-bearer, a constellation, and the eleventh sign in the zodiac, commonly marked thus (~.)

AQUATICS. Trees or plants which grow on the banks of rivers and marshes and watery places.

AQUA-TINTE. A method of etching, which is made to resemble a fine drawing in water colours.

AQUEDUCT. A conduit for water by pipes. In the time of the emperor Nerva there were nine, which emptied themselves through 13,594 pipes of an inch diameter. That conAPPRENTICE. A young person bound structed by Louis XIV. for carrying the Bucq by indentures or articles of agreement to a to Versailles, is 7000 fathoms long, with 2560 tradesman, or artificer, to learn his trade or fathoms of elevation, and contains 242 arcades. mystery. By the stat. 5 Eliz. no person can AQUEOUS HUMOUR. The watery huexercise any trade in any part of England, mour of the eye, the first and outermost which without having served a regular apprentice- is less dense than the crystalline. ship of at least seven years.

APPROACHES (in Fortification.) The works thrown up by the besiegers, in order to get nearer a fortress without being exposed to the enemy's cannon.

ARABIAN. A native of a large country in Asia, consisting principally of immense deserts, with a few fertile spots. The climate is hot and dry, and on the deserts water is seldom found. The camel is the only animal APPROVER (in Law.) One who, being used for crossing the deserts; it being able to indicted of treason or felony, confesses him- travel many days without water, and carry self guilty, and accuses others to save himself: from 1200 to 1500 pounds weight on its back. this is vulgarly called turning state's evidence. The inhabitants are ignorant and savage, subAPPROXIMATION. In general a getting sisting principally by robbery. The horse of near to an object; in mathematics, a continual Arabia is celebrated for fleetness, beauty, hardiapproach to a root or quantity sought, but not ness, and docility. expected to be found.

APPULSE (in Astronomy.) The approach of a plannet towards a conjunction with the sun or any of the fixed stars.

APPURTENANCES (in Law.) Things corporeal and incorporeal that appertain to another thing as principal; as hamlets to a chief manor. Outhouses, yards, orchards, gardens, &c. are appurtenant to a messuage. APRICOT. A fine sort of wall fruit, which requires much sun to ripen it.

APRIL. The second month of Romulus' year, and the fourth of Numa's year, which began, as it does now, in January.

A PRIORI. A mode of reasoning by proving the effect from the cause.

APROPOS. Just in time.

APSIDES. The two points in the orbit of a planet, at the greatest and least distance from the sun.

ARABIC, or GUM ARABIC. A transpaAPTERA. The seventh order of insects, rent kind of gum brought from Arabia, which having no wings, including spiders, fleas, ear- distils from a plant of the acacia species. It is wigs, &c.; also lobsters, crabs, prawns, and used for painting in water colours, and also by shrimps. calico printers and other manufacturers, but it AQUAFORTIS. A weak and impure nitric is difficult to procure it genuine. That which acid, commonly used in the arts. It is made is in small pieces, and of a perfectly white coof a mixture of purified nitre, or saltpetre, vi-lour, is reckoned the best.

triol, and potter's earth, in equal parts, and is ARABIC FIGURES, or CHARACTERS. distinguished into single and double, the for- The numeral characters now used in our arithmer of which is only half the strength of the metic, which were introduced into England latter. about the eleventh century. AQUA REGIA. Nitro-muriatic acid; com-1

ARBITER (in Civil Law.) A judge ap

pointed by the magistrate, or chosen by the signs for edifices, conducts the work, and diparties to decide any point of difference. An rects the artificers employed in it. arbiter must judge according to the usages of ARCHITECTURE. The art of building, law; but an arbitrator, who is a private extra-or the science which teaches the method of ordinary judge, chosen by the mutual consent constructing any edifice for use or ornament. of parties, is allowed a certain discretionary It is divided into civil, military, and naval architecture, according as the erections are for ARBITRATION. A mode of deciding con- civil, military, or naval purposes. The two troversies by means of arbiters or arbitrators. (See ARBITER.)

power.

ARBOR VITÆ. An evergreen shrub. ARBUTUS. The strawberry-tree. A beautiful shrub, bearing a red roundish berry. ARC. Any part of a curve line, as of a circle, ellipse, &c.

last kinds are otherwise called Fortification and Naval Architecture or Shipbuilding. (See FORTIFICATION and NAVAL ARCHITEC TURE.)

ARCHITECTURE, HISTORY OF. The origin of civil architecture, or architecture properly so called, is commonly derived from ARC, or ARCH DIURNAL (in Astrono- the building of huts in a conical form, spreadmy.) That part of a circle described by a ing wide at the bottom, and joining in a point heavenly body, between its rising and setting, at the top, the whole being covered with reeds, The nocturnal arch is that which is described leaves, &c. But whatever may have been the between its setting and rising. form of the first buildings, there is no doubt ARCH. A contrivance by which bricks, that the making of regular habitations was one stones, or iron, by pressing against each other, of the first things which necessity suggested and against immoveable abutments, maintain to the reason of man; for we find that Cain, their form, and possess sufficient strength for bridges and other purposes. Some arches are semicircular, which are called Saxon arches; others pointed, which are called Gothic.

his district.

ARCHDUKE. One having a pre-eminence over other dukes.

the son of Adam, built a city. Tents, or temporary residences, which were only suited to such as lead a wandering life, were not invented before the time of Jubal, the son of ARCHBISHOP. The chief prelate, having Tubal Cain; since that time, the Tartars have authority over other bishops. There are two followed the practice, and the original inhabitarchbishops in England; namely, that of ants of America did the same. Every nation, Canterbury, who has twenty-one bishops un-in proportion to the degree of civilization which der him; and that of York, who has four. it has attained, has shown a disposition to exARCHDEACON. An officer in the church ercise their ingenuity in the construction of of England, who acts for the bishop, having a their residences. Among the Egyptians, this superintendent power over the clergy within art was carried to an extraordinary degree of perfection. Their pyramids, labyrinths, and some ruins of their palaces and other edifices, are still to be seen and admired as stupendous ARCHERY. The art of shooting with a monuments of their industry, perseverance, bow; formerly a favourite diversion among and skill. Near Andera, in Upper Egypt, the English, who were also much skilled in it are the ruins of a palace of gray granite, the as a military exercise. The practice of arche- ceilings of which are supported by columns of ry was much encouraged by their kings. It such thickness, that four men can scarcely was followed both as a recreation and a ser- span them. The grand hall is 112 feet long, vice, and Edward III. prohibited all useless 60 high, and 58 broad. The roof of the whole games that interfered with the practice of it on edifice is a terrace, on which once stood an holidays and other intervals of leisure. By Arabian village. The Babylonians and Peran act of Edward IV. every man was to have sians vied with the Egyptians, both in the a bow of his own height, to be made of yew, grandeur and splendour of their buildings, as hazel, or ash, &c.; and mounds of earth were may be judged from the ruins still remaining. "to be made in every township, for the use of A staircase was to be seen some time ago, the inhabitants. There were two kinds of having 95 steps of white marble still standing, bows in use among the English; namely, the so broad and flat, that 12 horses might conlongbow and the crossbow; those who used veniently go abreast.

the longbow were called archers, in distinction As these vast structures were not fitted for from the crossbowmen. The English archers the general convenience of mankind, we must were the most skilful in Europe, and were look to the Greeks for the art of architecture employed in the army long after firearms were as it has since been exercised. From the simintroduced. The artillery company of Lon-ple construction of wooden huts, Vitruvius don is an ancient fraternity of archers and supposes the orders of architecture took their bowmen, besides which there are several com- rise. When buildings of wood were superpanies of archers in England, as the woodmen seded by solid and stately edifices of stone, of Arden.

ARCHITECT. One who is skilled in architecture. The architect forms plans and de

they imitated the parts which necessity had introduced into the primitive huts; so that the upright trees, with the stones at cach extremi

1

ty of them, were the origin of columns, bases, | since been characteristic of the Corinthian orand capitals; and the beams, joists, rafters, der. Scamozzi calls this the virginal order, and the materials which formed the covering, because it bears all the delicacy in its dress pegave birth to architraves, friezes, triglyphs, cor- culiar to young virgins. nices, with the corona, mutules, modilions, The Tuscan, or Etruscan Order, derives its and dentiles. To bring all these several parts name from the Etruscans, or Pelasgians, who to the state of perfection at which they arrived, first inhabited Etruria, in Italy; this is therewas the work of long experience and much fore looked upon as a Roman order. It has the reasoning, aided by the invention of many proportions of the Doric order; but as it is one tools. The Greeks improved upon the works of the plainest and simplest orders, it is in all of the Egyptians, so as to render them, if not probability one of the most ancient. Vitruvius so durable, at least more ornamental, and per-speaks of the proportions of this order, but haps more really serviceable. The construc- there are no certain remains of it, unless we tion of arches was unknown to the ancient As- except the Trajan and Antonine pillars at syrians and Babylonians. The roofs of their Rome. halls were flat, and covered with prodigiously

The Composite or Roman Order, is so calllarge stones, some of them large enough to ed because it combines the proportions and decover the whole room. They had columns, corations of the Corinthian order, with the but they were ill proportioned, and the capitals angular volute and dentils of the Ionian, thus were badly executed. The art of proportion- forming a new order, which was adopted by ing the various parts of a building belongs, in the Romans. a peculiar manner, to the Greeks, from whom Both the Greeks and Romans were in the we derive the three principal orders: at the practice of using the figures of men and wosame time it must not be denied, that the Jew- men instead of regular columns, whence arose ish nation had earlier examples of such proportion; and that, in all probability, the Greeks took their idea of a regular order in architecture from the temple of Solomon.

the Persian or Persic Order, in which the statues of men, and the Caryatic Order, in which the statues of women served to support the entablatures, in the place of columns. In the Doric Order, which is so called from The Romans had also their Termini for the Dorus, the son of Helenus, and grandson of support of entablatures, the upper part of Deucalion, the column approaches very nearly which represented the head and breast of a huto the proportions of those to be found in Solo-man body, and the lower the inverted frustrum mon's temple. This order was first employed of a square pyramid. Persian figures are geby Dorus in the building of a temple at Argos, nerally charged with a Doric entablature; the in honour of Juno, and was formed according Caryatides with an Ionic or Corinthian arto the proportions between the foot of a man chitrave and cornice; and the Termini with and the rest of his body, reckoning the foot an entablature of any of the three Grecian orto be the sixth part of a man's height: they gave to a Doric column, taking in its chapi-ter, six of its diameters; that is to say, they made it six times as high as it was thick, but they afterwards added a seventh diameter.

The Ionic Order, which takes its name from the Ionians, in Upper Asia, was formed according to the proportions of a woman; making the height of the column to be eight times greater than the diameter. They also made channeling in the trunk, to imitate the folds in the dress of a woman, and by the volutes in the chapiter they represented that part of the hair which hung in curls on each side of the face; besides, the Ionians added a base to their column, which the Dorians originally had not.

ders.

In their private buildings, the Roman architects followed the Greeks; but in their public edifices they far surpassed them in grandeur. Architecture was carried to its highest pitch of perfection in the reign of Augustus. The Pantheon, one of the finest monuments of antiquity, was built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus. Some of his successors, particularly Trajan and Antoninus, were no less favourable to the exercise of this art; but on the decline of the empire, architecture shared the fate of other arts, and declined also, but did not altogether drop. New modes of building were introduced, which acquired the name of styles; as the Gothic, Saxon, and Norman styles.

The Corinthian Order, which was posterior The Gothic style was so called because it to the other two, took its rise from an acci- was first used by the Visigoths. The Saxon dent related by Virtruvius. A basket, with a and Norman styles was so called because they tile over it, had been placed on the tomb of a were respectively used by the Saxons before young Corinthian maid, near which grew the the Conquest, and by the Normans after, in herb acanthus, or bear's breech. The leaves the building of churches. The Saxon style of this plant rising up to the tile, then curled was distinguished by the semicircular arch, themselves down into a sort of volute, which which they seem to have taken partly from being observed by Callimachus, the sculptor, the Romans, and partly from their ancestors on he took the idea of representing such a circle the continent. of leaves in the capital of a column, that has

The Norman style was distinguished by the

following particulars: the walls were very ment, Chelsea Hospital, the Theatre at Oxthick, generally without buttresses; the arches, ford, Trinity College Library, and Emmanuel both within and without, semicircular, and College, Cambridge; besides upwards of fiftysupported by very plain and solid columns; two churches, and innumerable other public of which examples are to be seen in the chan- buildings. cel at Oxford in Suffolk, and at Christ Church, Canterbury. Sometimes, however, the columns were decorated with carvings of foliage or animals, and sometimes with spirals, lozenge, or network.

ARCHITECTURE (in Perspective.) A sort of building, the members of which are of different measures and modules, and diminish in proportion to their distance, to make the building appear longer and larger to the view than it really is.

ARCHIVAULT. The inner contour of an arch, or a frame set off with mouldings, running over the faces of the arch stones, and bearing upon the imposts.

ARCHIVES. Historical records; also, a place for depositing them.

AREA (in Geometry.) The superficial contents of any figure, as a triangle, quadrangle, &c.

These two styles continued to be the prevailing modes of building in England until the ARCHITRAVE. That part of a column or reign of Henry II. when a new mode was in- series of columns that is above or lies immetroduced, which was called modern Gothic. diately upon the capital. It is the lowest mem. Whether this was purely a deviation from the ber of the frieze, and is supposed to represent other two modes, or whether it was derived from the principal beam in timber buildings. It is any foreign source, is not known. It is, how-sometimes called the reason-piece, as in portiever, supposed to be of Saracenic extraction, and coes, cloisters, &c.; and the master-piece in to have been introduced by the crusaders. This chimneys. supposition is strengthened by the fact, that the mosques and palaces of Fez, and also some of the cathedrals in Spain built by the Moors, are in this style; which ought therefore to be called Arabic, Saracenic, or Moresque. This style is distinguished by its numerous but tresses, lofty spires and pinnacles, large and ARCTIC. A space on the earth as far ramified windows, with a profusion of orna- round the North Pole as the tropics are distant ments throughout. It came into general use from the equator, 23 1-20, within which the in the reign of Henry III.; when the circular sun does not rise or set for a day or days withgave way to the pointed arch, and the massive in the year. The similar space round the column to the slender pillar, of which the pre- South Pole is called the Antarctic Circle. sent cathedral church of Salisbury, begun at AREA. The site or space of ground on that period, affords the best specimen. From which any building is erected. that time to the reign of Henry VIII. the pillars in churches were of Purbeck marble, very slender and round, encompassed with marble shafts a little detached, having each a capital ARENA. That part of an amphitheatre adorned with foliage, which joining formed where the gladiators contended, so called from one elegant capital for the whole pillar. The the sand with which it was strewed. windows were long and narrow, with pointed ARGENT (in Heraldry.) The white colour arches and painted glass; and the lofty stee- in the coats of arms of baronets, knights, and ples were furnished with spires and pinnacles. gentlemen. In the reign of Henry VIII. a new kind of ARGO NAVIS. A constellation called after low pointed arch was introduced, which was the ship of Jason and his companions. described from four centres, was very round ARGUMENT. Whatever is offered or of at the haunches, and the angle at the top was fers itself to the mind, so as to create belief in very obtuse, as may be seen in Cardinal Wol-regard to any subject or matter laid down. sey's buildings. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the taste for Greek and Roman architecture revived, and brought the five orders again into use, although for sacred edifices the Saxon and Gothic styles still maintain the pre-eminence. The Italians were for a long time reckoned the greatest architects, but England may also boast of an Inigo Jones and a Sir Christopher Wren, who hold a very high rank in the art. Inigo Jones has left the ban-zodiac, marked (T.) queting house at Whitehall, Queen Catherine's ARISTOCRACY. A form of government Chapel at St. James's, the Piazza at Covent in which the power is vested in the nobility. Garden, and other buildings, as proofs of his ARITHMETIC. The art of numbering or skill and taste. The works of Sir Christo- computing by certain rules, of which the four pher Wren even surpass those of his prede- first and simplest are addition, subtraction, cessor, both in number and magnitude. multiplication, and division. Vulgar ArithAmong these stand foremost the Cathedral of metic is the computation of numbers in the orSt. Paul's, Greenwich Hospital, the Monu-dinary concerns of life. Integral Arithmetic

ARGUMENT (in Astronomy.) An arc, whereby another arc is to be sought bearing a certain proportion to the first arc.

ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM (in Logic.) A mode of reasoning, in which an argument is drawn from the professed principles or practice of the adversary.

ARIES. The Ram, a constellation of fixed stars, and the first of the twelve signs of the

treats of whole numbers; Fractional Arith- units, nine tens, and nine hundreds, including metic, of fractional numbers; Decimal Arith- the final letters, as & Aleph, 1, Beth, 2, &c. metic, of decimal numbers. Universal Arith- to Yod, 10; then Caph, 20, Lamed, 30, metic is the name given to Algebra by Sir &c. to p Koph, 100, Resh, 200, &c. to p Isaac Newton. Tsadi final, 900. Thousands were sometimes ARITHMETIC, HISTORY OF. Of Arith- expressed by the units annexed to hundred, as metic as a science, we know but very little as 7, 1434; sometimes by the word, 1000, to its state and progress among the ancients., 2000, and with other numerals prefixIt is evident, from the bare consideration of our ed, to signify the number of thousands. To wants, and earliest impressions, that some avoid using the divine name of 7, Jehovah, in knowledge of numbers, or some mode of com- notation, they substituted for fifteen. To putation, however imperfect, was coeval with the alphabet of the Greeks were assigned two society; and as the transactions of men became numerical powers, namely, a power to each inore complicated, it is reasonable to infer that letter in order, as a, Alpha, 1, &c. to w, Omethey would hit on devices for facilitating and ga, 24, and a power similar to that adopted by simplifying their calculations. Josephus as the Jews, as a, Alpha, 1, &c. to K, Kappa, 10, serts that Abraham, having retired from Chal- &c. ; to w, Omega, 800; then 900 was exdea into Egypt, during the time of a famine, pressed by the character 77, and the thousands was the first who taught the inhabitants of that were denoted by a point under the letters after country a knowledge both of arithmetic and asthis manner, 1000, 2000, &c.; the numtronomy, of which they were both before ignorant; a circumstance the more probable, as it ber of 10,000 was sometimes expressed by a is well known that the science of astronomy small dash over the iota, thus, í, but mathemawas first cultivated among the Chaldeans, and ticians employed the letter M, which, by such advances made in that science as could placing under the small letters, indicated the not have been effected without the aid of arith- number of thousands, as a for 10,000, ẞ for metical calculations.

a
1

M

M

The Greeks imagined that the science of 20,000, &c. Diophantus and Pappus made arithmetic, as well as that of geometry, origi- Mu to represent 10,000, and then by the addinated with the Egyptians; but this notion, as tion of the letters, as BMv, for 20,000, &c. far as respects priority of discovery, was evi- Apollonius divided numbers into periods of four dently erroneous, and no doubt arose from the characters, to which he gave a local value very circumstance of their having derived all their similar to the modern mode of notation. The first ideas of the arts and sciences, as well as Greeks, however, were enabled, by means of many of their fables, from the Egyptians. their letters, to perform the common rules of Thus, as the Egyptians believed that they addition, subtraction, multiplication, and diwere taught numbers by their god Theut or vision, from which, no doubt, the idea was Thot, who presided over commerce, the Greeks taken of working with letters in our Algebra; assigned a similar office to their god Mercury. for it is worthy of observation, that in their As the Phenicians were the first trading peo- multiplication they proceeded from left to right, ple, they naturally addicted themselves to the as in the multiplication of algebra at present. science and practice of arithmetic, which led The Greeks had likewise another kind of noStrabo to observe that the invention of the art tation by means of capitals, more properly belonged to them; but, as the Chaldeans were initials of the names of numbers, and were a more ancient people, this supposition is no used in inscriptions, as I for ta or pia, 1, II for less erroneous than the former. What ad- névre, 5, ▲ for déxa, 10, &c. The Roman novances were made by these people in the sci- tation, which is still used in marking dates, ence we have no means of ascertaining, for and numbering chapters, &c. consists of five nothing remains of the early writings on this of their capital letters, namely, I one, V five, subject, except what may be gathered from X ten, L fifty, C one hundred, which are inthe commentary of Proclus on the First Book creased in this manner: the repetition of the of Euclid's Elements. It appears that almost I's increases numbers by units, as II for two, all nations were led to fix upon the same nu- III for three, &c.; that of X's increases nummeral scale, or the common method of nota- bers by tens, as XX for twenty, XXX for tion, by dividing numbers into tens, hundreds, thirty, &c.; and that of C's increases numand thousands; a practice doubtless derived bers by hundreds, as CC for two hundred, from the custom, so universally adopted in CCC for three hundred, &c.; also a less chachildhood, of counting by the fingers; which, racter before a greater diminishes the value of being first reckoned singly from one to ten, the number, as I before V, thus, IV, makes it and then successively over again, would natu- four, I before X, thus, IX, makes it nine: on rally lead to the decimal scale or the decuple the other hand, a less character after a greater division of numbers. But they represented increases the value of the number, as I after V, their numbers by means of the letters of the thus, VI, makes it six, and I after X, thus, XI, alphabet in the place of the modern numerals. makes it eleven. In what manner the Romans Thus the Jews divided their alphabet into nine performed their arithmetical operations is not