soldier, on both sides, fought " upon his own hook," and continued the battle as long as he chose, the officers having little or no control over their men. Indeed, I heard it repeatedly said, that the troops commanded the officers, and not the officers the troops. If it had not been so, many of the acts of cruelty and barbarity that are represented upon good authority as having occurred, would not have taken place. These I cannot but consider as destroying all the glory of the day to the Chilians, whose avowed object in coming to Peru, was to make. war against Santa Cruz, and not against the Peruvians.

Gamarra was now established firmly in Peru, and the Confederation broken up. Bulnes and his forces returned to Chili, where he has since been elevated to the highest office of the republic (that of President). Thus ended the year 1839.

In 1840, Bolivia, after the overthrow of Santa Cruz, became the prey of rival factions, and Gamarra was invited to come with an armed force and settle their disputes. No sooner, however, had he reached Bolivia, than the rival chiefs, forgetting their own quarrels, united, for their animosity against him exceeded their own little jealousies. They attacked him at disadvantage, and completely routed his forces; he himself was killed in his flight from the field of battle. The Bolivians in their turn now invaded Peru, but through the mediation of Chili, a peace was brought about, which left both Peru and Bolivia in a state of great anarchy and confusion: all the men of any note endeavouring to create parties for themselves.

The above sketch of the history of Peru has been obtained partly from persons long resident and eye-witnesses of many of the scenes, and the few official documents that have been from time to time published.

To complete the history of the misgovernment of Peru, I will now add short biographical sketches of the chiefs who have been the principal actors in all these troubles and revolutions: these were obtained from individuals who were personally acquainted with most of them.

In the order of events, as they have occurred, Bolivar stands first; his history is, however, too well known to need any detail. He undoubtedly had talents, and was probably at first an honest and conscientious patriot. He split upon the rock that had already wrecked so many before him. His desire of personal aggrandizement caused him to forget that he set out to promote the welfare and happiness of his country. He consequently fell a victim to his disappointed ambition, and for many years previous to his death, accused his

country, which he believed to be indebted to him, of ingratitude, for not preferring his interests to her own happiness. Notwithstanding his many faults, posterity will give him due credit for his meritorious actions. This, however, does not satisfy the South Americans. Their taste and customs lead them to desire present gratification rather than posthumous fame. It is remarkable, that not one of the men that the revolutions in South America have brought forth, appears to have been influenced by the feeling that he was serving his country.

La Mar was, during the early part of the war of the revolution, in the Spanish service; but he afterwards joined the popular side. He served with great credit to himself until the close of it, and contributed much to the success of the last and decisive battle of Ayacucho. After this he retired to Guayaquil, where he had married a lady of good family, and remained quietly in the enjoyment of domestic comfort, until he was called to the presidency of Peru. He was a man of respectable talents, pure and unsuspected integrity, and universally esteemed in private life. He died in Central America, whither he had been banished by Gamarra, leaving a reputation much fairer than that of any of his associates.

Gamarra also had served for several years in the Spanish army, before the revolution broke out. He early joined the patriot side. As a subaltern, he acquired the reputation of being an active and zealous officer; but on his promotion to higher grades, he is said to have displayed, in the battles and skirmishes in which he was engaged, but little military skill, and his courage was more than once questioned. At the close of the war, he was raised to the rank of general of division; and his first act, as has been seen, was to desert La Mar at Portete, which manifested both his treachery and cowardice. His success has been ascribed to his skill in intrigue, and to his making use of the patronage of his station to effect his purposes. He trampled upon the rights of those over whom he ruled, while at the same time he was making the strongest professions in favour of democratic principles, and the rights of the people. Under the pretext of restoring to his country its violated constitution, he has twice overthrown the established authorities, and placed himself in power at the point of the bayonet. Lavish of the public treasure, and equally careless in the economy of his private affairs, he lived and died in poverty. False in his friendships, and unforgiving in his enmities, he was especially to be feared by those with whom he became apparently reconciled after a quarrel. He has left but few admirers, although through his management he contrived to hold the reins of

government longer than any one who has yet occupied the presidential chair.

Lafuente was a cadet in the Spanish service, but joined the patriot cause. He did not gain much reputation in the war of the revolution, and his first essay as a general officer was a disobedience of orders in landing at Callao, while on his way to join La Mar, at the same. time uniting in intrigues with Gamarra, whom he succeeded in getting nominated as President, and himself as Vice-President. These two chiefs appear to have understood each other, and, to avoid collision in the division of the spoils, agreed that each should pursue his leading passion. Gamarra accordingly conferred honours and rewards, whilst Lafuente indulged his mercenary propensity in the accumulation of wealth. The latter has grown rich, by robbing the people and by farming out the resources of the state to his agents and friends. Although certainly not the only chief magistrate who has plundered the state, he is, perhaps, the only one in Peru who has hoarded his illgotten wealth, and obtained affluence whilst his country was impoverished. He is still living, and was acting as chief during our visit to Lima.

Orbejoso served in the patriot army during the revolution, and at the close of the war retired to his estate near Truxillo, with but little reputation. There he remained until elected to the presidency, in 1831. Without talents as a statesman or courage as a soldier, he acquired more popularity than any other of his contemporaries in Peru. He undoubtedly sold his country to Santa Cruz, receiving as the price of it the appointment of President of North Peru, or rather that of one of Santa Cruz's lieutenants. At the moment of a threatened invasion from Chili, he renounced the Confederation, in order to acquire independent command, and regained much of his lost popularity by a show of patriotism and gallantry in opposing the invading force. His imbecility and want of knowledge, together with the conduct of General Nieto, lost him the battle under the walls of Lima, as well as the possession of the city, and all his troops. Soon afterwards, he was found in retirement at Guayaquil, where he has been constantly occupied in forming plans for his reinstatement to power.

Salaverry served as a cadet in the last year of the revolution, and was esteemed an enterprising and gallant officer. He was, however, of a reckless disposition, and it is related that he threatened to shoot. his mother, who had opposed one of his youthful freaks. Others, however, bear testimony to his good conduct in all his domestic relations, and to his kindness and generosity. When he usurped the supreme

authority, he had only about two hundred men at his command, yet in less than three months the whole country had recognised his authority and government. In his short public career he certainly displayed violent passions, and he evinced cruelty in many of his acts; but he seems at times to have had impulses of generosity, though they may have been but feeble. When he assumed the command, and declared himself Supreme Chief, he banished General Nieto, a superior officer. The captain of the vessel in which he went was induced to land him in the north of Peru, where he collected some troops, and made war upon Salaverry, who immediately marched against him, vowing vengeance for what he termed his ungrateful conduct, in return for his lenity. On Salaverry's approach, one of Nieto's followers betrayed him, and he was surprised and captured. Salaverry immediately invited him to his tent; they supped and slept together on the same hide, but he afterwards banished him from Peru.

Another act, which does not show him in quite so amiable a light, was his ordering General Valle Reistra, an old companion, an estimable and good officer, to be torn from his wife at midnight, and within her hearing shot in cold blood, for no alleged crime, but it is supposed merely for the purpose of striking terror into his opponents. Salaverry was full of energy, both to determine and execute his plans, and evinced talents which, had they been controlled by judgment and guided by moral principle, might have consolidated his power and saved his country from the anarchy which has since existed. He possessed the true spirit to rule the Peruvians, so far as energy was concerned; and before Peru becomes settled, she will need some military despotism, in order to break down the small and numerous contending chiefs, who prove, as each gains the ascendency, the worst of tyrants. The mode of his death has already been spoken of.

Santa Cruz was in the Spanish service at the commencement of the revolution, and being captured by the patriots, was for some time a prisoner in Buenos Ayres. On his liberation he espoused the popular cause, and was for a short time at the head of the government in Peru, where he had been placed by Bolivar, and continued until the setting aside of that chieftain's authority, and the election of La Mar as President. Santa Cruz was expelled by the intrigues of his enemies, but was afterwards employed as minister to Chili. His subsequent elevation to the presidency of Bolivia has led to the suspicion that he participated in the assassination of the former President, Blanco; and his patronage of the known actors in that affair, gave strong grounds for believing the truth of the report.

Santa Cruz is a man of ordinary talents, but of sound common sense. From his education (which is superior to that of his countrymen) he is far in advance of them in his knowledge and appreciation of the institutions of other countries. He is indefatigable in his labours, and always exacts the attention of others to their duties. His passions are strong and his temper unforgiving. Mercenary in his disposition, and economical in his habits, he has always been lavish of the public treasure to promote his own views. From his liberal cast of mind, he generally manifested a strong desire to forward the introduction of improvements, and to adopt such measures as would tend to improve the state and its people. His measures undertaken for this purpose, were sometimes arbitrary, and by them, and his desire to engross all the power in his own person, he lost much popularity. Foreigners esteemed him as one of the most efficient chief magistrates that have ever presided over this unfortunate country.

For the purpose of elucidating the character of the proceedings of the chiefs in this country, I will conclude by giving a translation of one of the decrees, establishing the government of South Peru, by Santa Cruz.

Considerando.

1. That the government of South Peru remains incomplete by the death and absence of some of the persons composing it.

2. That the necessity exists, that that government should have an organization more simple than it has yet enjoyed.

It is decreed.

Article 1. That the government of South Peru be composed of a Provisionary President, and a Secretary-General, who shall transact all the ordinary affairs of the Interior and Hacienda, agreeably to the laws, orders, and existing decrees.

Article 2. The Provisional President will place his rubric to all the resolutions and official papers, and sign, with the Secretary-General, the decrees which he may issue.

Article 3. The Provisional President and Secretary are responsible for all the acts of his administration.

Article 4. There shall be two Secretaries, one for the Interior, the other for the Hacienda, with the necessary subordinates.....

Article 5. The Provisional President will fill all the vacant places. and displace any from bad conduct, or the neglectful performance of his duties, or transfer them to other posts, as he may deem best for the public benefit.