tional affairs. To forget the past is to fail to understand the present and to read the future. In the study of the history of mankind, this distinction needs to be made clear and appreciated. We can safely forget only when to forget is to further the cause of liberty, as in the case of our past relations with England, and the troubles of our own civil conflict. We can forget in the case of England because we know that the England of a powerful aristocracy and "divine right" monarchs is no more. For the same reason we should have known and remembered the principles and conduct of the present kaiser and government of Germany. It is a sad fact that in the past the nation that has not been able to return evil for evil has been doomed to disappear from among the independent nations of the world. Let us hope that such a thing in the future cannot be. It is a terrible test of our faith, in the midst of the present whirlpool of horror; but when faith is lost, all is lost. In ancient times, among the uncivilized peoples, even by scriptural injunction, it was "an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth"; but when the world is "made safe for democracy" the principles of Christ can reign in the nations as well as in the hearts of men. Poor Belgium, poor Belgium! What a comment on our Christian civilization! The time must come when the innocent cannot be made to suffer for the sins of the plunderers of justice and virtue, for the crimes of the privileged parasites of the human kingdom.

In considering our seventh cause, i. e., the growth of nationality, we note that the present German empire was built upon a series of wars none of which was really justifiable, and Germany today is paying the price of her past perfidy—that of the founders of her empire. The union of Germany would indeed have been delayed to a later generation, but who dare say she would not have been better for the delay? It would have been a Germany of democracy, no matter how long delayed, if it had been allowed the natural course of development. In taking Schleswig-Holstein Bis

marck was thinking of German imperial interests, not of the true interests of those provinces, much less of the interests of Denmark whom he robbed of them. Shortly after, he showed his perfidy by driving Austria out of Germany and German affairs, in the "Six Weeks War," just after he had persuaded her to help him conquer Denmark and take from her the two provinces, with the tacit understanding that the booty was to be divided between the two victors, Austria to have her full share. It is likewise well known that Bismarck was courting war with Louis Napoleon of France, in 1870, and that his mutilization of the telegram of the king of Prussia to France was the occasion of France declaring war. In other words, he tricked Napoleon and the government of France into declaring the war which he (Bismarck) desired. Nor did the "Iron Chancellor" conceal to his people the fact that he proposed to create a German empire on the principle of "blood and iron." That was his gospel for Germany. We know how dangerous to the peace and safety of the world it is for the government or people of a great country to revert to the war instinct, to become militaristic, in the sense that Germany has been since the time of Frederick the Great. The war spirit is the most violent of emotions, and in its desperation is much akin to insanity! On the pretext of nationality there have always been certain nations that have had a predilection for the life of war-different peoples (led by their rulers) at different times. At one time it was Rome; at another, Spain; at another time France, under Louis XIV; at another, Italy. For more than fifty years it has been Germany, led by Prussian autocracy. How well, how thoroughly, how efficiently have the German people obeyed that gospel! Even their most wonderful arts of peace have been made to contribute to that end, instead of to the far nobler, disinterested end of charity for the whole world. "Gott straffe England” is the gospel of hate, not of patriotism— of hate in its most malignant form, and obedience to that

gospel is the explanation of the many outrageous acts of barbarism-the atrocities of Germans-of which we hear so much, and with which we are so familiar, today. But "Gott straffe England" was only the beginning. "Gott straffe democracy" is the true purpose and watchword today; and that means the United States of America, first and foremost of all, for America is first and foremost in democracy.

The other great struggle for nationalism in the past century, namely, the unification of Italy, which is still going on, we need comment upon but very briefly. While it has not been unmixed with injustice on Italy's part, no such crimes can be laid at the feet of Victor Emmanuel, Cavour and Garibaldi as at the feet of the leaders for an imperial Germany. On the other hand the history of Austria, the arch-enemy of Italian freedom in the past century, is even worse than that of Germany. And now, that the whole world is reaping the fruits of these past wrongs, it must be a liberty washed in blood that is to rise upon the ruins of the past. One of the fondest hopes of the best servants of the world at present is, that this great catastrophe may be bringing near the end of the era of selfishness and of might.

In considering the "balance of power" as a cause of war, we find that it has contributed to wars in Europe for centuries past; that it has its weight in the present war, and is dangerous for the future until, or unless the results of the present conflict and coming peace give guarantees that will obliterate the natural distrust of states and peoples for each other, together with the disturbance of peace and prosperity throughout the world.

Our ninth cause, imperfection of government is so evident that it may be passed over with but a word of comment. It is in general only small and weak nations, or those in a more or less violent state of transformation of government, that are prey to the exploitation of war. Portugal and perhaps Spain have happily recovered from that state within the past and present generations, but there is no

immediate hope for Mexico, nor for the new Russian states. The present allied intervention will bring its political results only after years. The military object, of course, may be gained soon and Russia saved from Germany, but, after that, it will take her generations to find herself.

The desire to secure natural boundaries, always strong, but more so if those boundaries have once been held, is one of the great causes for several countries engaging in war, even in the present war-as in the case of Italy, Russia, Bulgaria, Serbia and to some extent others. Not that this was the only cause with any of them; but it was a great, if not controlling, motive. After France was plunged into the strife, of course she desired Alsace-Lorraine, as a better natural barrier against Germany, together with other reasons which are well known, chief among them being the race hatred, national feeling, and the keenest desire for revenge upon Germany for taking those provinces in 1871. Many unnatural boundaries must be wiped out at the conclusion of this world conflict, and a new map of the Eastern world made in the adjustment.

Wars arising from trade rivalry in their essentials have already been discussed above, and may be passed over here.

Wars of conquest and of the ambition of leaders next claim our attention. Facts already considered make it appear that the nations in the past have lived chiefly on the principle that might makes right. The study of wars of conquest makes this conviction all the stronger. By this we are able to see how far as nations, up to the present war at least, we have been from the principle of peace and honor that we have been accustomed so much to talk about. With this realization many illusions, and many theories and fond hopes vanish. We are just beginning to take the world as it is to understand it and frame our future plans upon that basis. It is a striking thing to note that, until recent times the right of conquest was never brought in question. That it has been condemned in modern times, however, is

proof of the value of our civilization. In these dark hours of trial we should keep this fact in mind; it carries a message of hope for mankind. Until recently, the act of conquering was appreciated as one of the very highest of human activities, and the greatest warriors were the greatest statesmen. The literature, particularly the poetry, of the middle ages, was replete with the exploits of the military heroes. Force was desired by the state, with very few exceptions among the ancient and medieval peoples, above everything else. Let us be thankful we have gotten beyond that stage, and that the disturbers of the world's peace, notwithstanding their frantic efforts to justify their actions and to shift responsibility, nevertheless stand condemned before the judgment bar of humanity! The ambition of a leader singly, can never again bring on a great war, nor has one ruler alone been able to, for a hundred years past.

Great navies and standing armies are contributing causes only when other causes are back of them. Yet, we must see, as a result of this war, that great standing armies are abolished forever. This is imperatively necessary, not only to guarantee peace, but to enable the nations to pay off their tremendous war debts. At the rate that the armies and navies were building in Europe previous to this war, the whole continent would have been bankrupt in another generation, even without war. How necessary it is then, that those expensive and crushing burdens upon the peoples be done away with, or lowered to the very minimum-to the extent that their expense shall be small, as compared with the arts of peace!

The fourteenth cause listed above, namely, the suppression of democratic and revolutionary movements of the peoples, which has been a leading cause in the past, and has proven. the perfidy of princes, is bound to decrease and vanish, as the cause of democracy grows and finally triumphs throughout the world. The long and patient struggle of the people is at last to be rewarded. It has taken thousands of years