but large masses of almost pure white (resembling alabaster) have been found embedded in the main deposits. The quantity of this article is practically inexhaustible, and the time will certainly come when it will be a source of wealth to that part of the State. It has been used to a considerable extent in the manufacture of Plaster-of-Paris, and has been found equal to the best in quality. It has also been used to a limited extent for paving and building purposes.

SPRING AND WELL WATER.

As before stated, the surface of Iowa is generally drained by the rolling or undulating character of the country, and the numerous streams, large and small. This fact might lead some to suppose that it might be difficult to procure good spring or well water for domestic uses. Such, however, is not the case, for good pure well water is easily obtained all over the State, even on the highest prairies. It is rarely necessary to dig more than thirty feet deep to find an abundance of that most indispensible element, good water. Along the streams are found many springs breaking out from the banks, affording a constant supply of pure water. As a rule, it is necessary to dig deeper for well water in the timber portions of the State, than on the prairies. Nearly all the spring and well waters of the State contain a small proportion of lime, as they do in the Eastern and Middle States. There are some springs which contain mineral properties, similar to the springs often resorted to by invalids and others in other States. In Davis county there are some "Salt Springs," as they are commonly called, the water being found to contain a considerable amount of common salt, sulphuric acid, and other mineral ingredients. Mineral waters are found in different parts of the State. No one need apprehend any difficulty about finding in all parts of Iowa an abundant supply of good wholesome water.

OLAYS.

In nearly all parts of the State the material suitable for the manufacture of brick is found in abundance. Sand is obtained in the bluffs along the streams and in their beds. Potter's clay, and fire-clay suitable for fire-brick, are found in many places. An excellent article of fire-brick is made at Eldora, Hardin county, where there are several extensive potteries in operation. Fire-clay is usually found underlying the coal-seams. There are extensive potteries in operation in the counties of Lee, Van Buren, Des Moines, Wapello, Boone, Hamilton, Hardin, and perhaps others.

MINERAL PAINT.

In Montgomery county a fine vein of clay, containing a large proportion of ochre, was several years ago discovered, and has been extensively used in that part of the State for painting barns and out-houses. It is of a dark red color, and is believed to be equal in quality, if properly manufactured, to the mineral paints imported from other States. The use of it was first introdued by Mr. J. B. Packard, of Red Oak, on whose land there is an extensive deposit of this material.

HOW THE TITLE TO IOWA LANDS IS DERIVED.

Right of Discovery-Title of France and Spain-Cession to the United States-Territorial Changes-Treaties with the Indians-The Dubuque Grant-The Giard Grant-The Honori Grant-The Half-Breed Tract--System of Public Surveys.

THE title to the soil of Iowa was, of course, primarily vested in the original occupants who inhabited the country prior to its discovery by the whites. But the Indians, being savages, possessed but few rights that civilized nations considered themselves bound to respect, so that when they found this country in the possession of such a people they claimed it in the name of the King of France, by the right of discovery. It remained under the jurisdiction of France until the year 1763.

Prior to the year 1763, the entire continent of North America was divided between France, England, Spain, and Russia. France held all that portion of what now constitutes our national domain west of the Mississippi river, except Texas and the territory which we have obtained from Mexico and Russia. This vast region, while under the jurisdiction of France, was known as the "Province of Louisiana," and embraced the present State of Iowa. At the close of the "Old French War," in 1763, France gave up her share of the continent, and Spain came into possession of the territory west of the Mississippi river, while Great Britain retained Canada and the regions northward, having obtained that territory by conquest in the war with France. For thirty-seven years the territory now embraced within the limits of Iowa remained as a part of the possession of Spain, and then went back to France by the treaty of St. Idlefonso, October 1, 1800. On the 30th of April, 1803, France ceded it to the United States in consideration of receiving $11,250,000, and the liquidation of certain claims held by citizens of the United States against France, which amounted to the further sum of $3,750,000, and making a total of $15,000,000. It will thus be seen that France has twice, and Spain once, held sovereignty over the territory embracing Iowa, but the financial needs of Napoleon afforded our government an opportunity to add another empire to its domain.

On the 31st of October, 1803, an act of Congress was approved authorizing the President to take possession of the newly acquired territory and provide for it a temporary government, and another act approved March 26, 1804, authorized the division of the "Louisiana Purchase," as it was then called, into two separate Territories. All that portion south of the 33d parallel of north latitude, was called the "Territory of Orleans," and that north of the said parallel was known as the "District of Louisiana," and was placed under the jurisdiction of what was then known as "Indiana Territory."

By virtue of an act of Congress, approved March 3, 1805, the "District of Louisiana" was organized as the "Territory of Louisiana," with a Territorial government of its own, which went into operation July 4th, of the same year, and it so remained until 1812. In this year the "Territory of Orleans" became the State of Louisiana, and the "Territory of Louisiana" was organized as the "Territory of Missouri." This change took place under an act of Congress approved June 4, 1812. In 1819, a portion of this territory was organized as "Arkansaw Territory," and in 1821 the State of Missouri was admitted, being a part of the former "Territory of Missouri." This left a vast domain still to the north, including the present States of Iowa and Minnesota, which was, in 1834, made a part of the "Territory of

Michigan." In July, 1836, the territory embracing the present States of Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin was detached from Michigan, and organized with a separate Territorial government under the name of "Wisconsin Territory."

By virtue of an act of Congress, approved June 12, 1838, on the 3d of July of the same year, the "Territory of Iowa" was constituted. It embraced the present State of Iowa, and the greater portion of what is now the State of Minnesota.

To say nothing of the title to the soil of Iowa that may once have vested in the natives who claimed and occupied it, it is a matter of some interest to glance at the various changes of ownership and jurisdiction through which it has passed within the time of our historical period;

1. It belonged to France, with other territory now belonging to our national domain.

2. In 1763, with other territory, it was ceded to Spain.

3. October 1, 1800, it was ceded with other territory from Spain back to France.

4. April 30, 1803, it was ceded with other territory by France to the United States.

5. October 31, 1803, a temporary government was authorized by Congress for the newly acquired territory.

6. October 1, 1804, it was included in the "District of Louisiana," and placed under the jurisdiction of the Territorial government of Indiana. 7. July 4, 1805, it was included as a part of the "Territory of Louisiana," then organized with a separate Territorial government.

8. June 4, 1812, it was embraced in what was then made the "Territory of Missouri."

9. June 28, 1834, it became part of the "Territory of Michigan."

10. July 3, 1836, it was included as a part of the newly organized "Territory of Wisconsin."

11. June 12, 1838, it was included in, and constituted a part of the newly organized "Territory of Iowa."

12. December 28, 1846, it was admitted into the Union as a State.

The cession by France, April 30, 1803, vested the title in the United States, subject to the claims of the Indians, which it was very justly the policy of the government to recognize. The several changes of territorial jurisdiction after the treaty with France did not affect the title to the soil. Before the government of the United States could vest clear title to the soil in its grantees it was necessary to extinguish the Indian title by purchase. The treaties vesting the Indian title to the lands within the limits of what is now the State of Iowa, were made at different times. The following is a synopsis of the several treaties by which the Indians relinquished to the United States their rights in Iowa:

1. Treaty with the Sacs and Foxes, Aug. 4, 1824.-This treaty between the United States and the Sacs and Foxes, was made at the City of Washington, William Clark being commissioner on the part of the United States. By this treaty the Sacs and Foxes relinquished their title to all lands in Missouri, Iowa then being a part of Missouri. In this treaty the land in the southeast corner of Iowa known as the "Half-Breed Tract," was reserved for the use of the half-breeds of the Sacs and Foxes, they holding the title to the same in the same manner as Indians. This treaty was ratified January 18, 1825.

2. Treaty with various tribes, Aug. 19, 1825.-This treaty was also made at the city of Washington, by William Clark as Commissioner on the part of the United States, with the Chippewas, Sacs and Foxes, Menomonees, Winnebagoes and a portion of the Ottawas and Pottawattamies. This treaty was intended mainly to make peace between certain contending tribes as to the limits of their respective hunting grounds in Iowa. It was agreed that the United States should run a boundary line between the Sioux on the nort and the Sacs and Foxes on the south, as follows: Commencing at the mouth of the Upper Iowa river, on the west bank of the Mississippi, and ascending said Iowa river to its west fork; thence up the fork to its source; thence crossing the fork of Red Cedar river in a direct line to the second or upper fork of the Des Moines river; thence in a direct line to the lower fork of the Calumet (Big Sioux) river, and down that to its junction with the Missouri river.

3. Treaty with the Sacs and Foxes, July 15, 1830.—By this treaty the Sacs and Foxes ceded to the United States a strip of country twenty miles in width lying directly south of the line designated in the treaty of Aug. 19, 1825, and extending from the Mississippi to the Des Moines river.

4. Treaty with the Sioux, July 15, 1830.-By this treaty was ceded to the United States a strip twenty miles in width, on the north of the line designated by the treaty of Aug. 19, 1825, and extending from the Mississippi to the Des Moines river. By these treaties made at the same date the United States came into possession of a strip forty miles wide from the Mississippi to the Des Moines river. It was known as the "Neutral Ground," and the tribes on either side of it were allowed to use it in common as a fishing and hunting ground until the government should make other disposition of it.

5. Treaty with various tribes, July 15, 1830.—This was a treaty with the Sacs and Foxes, Sioux, Omahas, Iowas and Missouris, by which they ceded to the United States a tract bounded as follows: Beginning at the upper fork of the Des Moines river, and passing the sources of the Little Sioux and Floyd rivers, to the fork of the first creek that falls into the Big Sioux, or Calumet river, on the east side; thence down said creek and the Calumet river to the Missouri river; thence down said Missouri river to the Missouri State line above the Kansas; thence along said line to the northeast corner of said State; thence to the highlands between the waters falling into the Missouri and Des Moines, passing to said highlands along the dividing ridge between the forks of the Grand river; thence along said highlands or ridge separating the waters of the Missouri from those of the Des Moines, to a point opposite the source of the Boyer river, and thence in a direct line to the upper fork of the Des Moines, the place of beginning. The lands ceded by this treaty were to be assigned, or allotted, under the direction of the President of the United States, to the tribes then living thereon, or to such other tribes as the President might locate thereon for hunting and other purposes. In consideration of the land ceded by this treaty the United States stipulated to make certain payments to the several tribes joining in the treaty. The treaty took effect by proclamation, February 24, 1831.

6. Treaty with the Winnebagoes, Sept. 15, 1832.-This treaty was made at Fort Armstrong, by Gen. Winfield Scott, and Gov. John Reynolds, of Illinois. By the treaty the Winnebagoes ceded to the United States all their lands on the east side of the Mississippi, and in part consideration therefor the United States granted to the Winnebagoes as a reservation the lands in Iowa known