can exist, or iron rust (it is said) within its fluence. The dust of this wood is used by the Bramins to form the pigment with which they give the tilac, or frontal mark, to the god Vishnu; and the oil used in their ceremonies is obtained from the shavings, or at least scented by them. The true sandal wood grows chiefly on the coast of Malabar, and in the East Indian islands.

SANDARACH; a gum resin, which oozes spontaneously from the old trunks of the common juniper (juniperus communis), and which is used in considerable quantities in the preparation of varnish, particularly of one kind, employed by cabinet makers and painters, called vernix. In its powdered form, it is known under the name of pounce. (See Juniper.)

SANDEMAN, Robert, in whom the sect called Sandemanians originated, was born at Perth, in Scotland, in 1723. He studied at Edinburgh, and afterwards engaged in the linen trade. On marrying the daughter of the reverend John Glass (founder of the Glassites), he became an elder in his congregation, and soon after published a series of letters, in which he endeavors to show that a justifying faith means nothing more than a simple assent to the divine mission of Christ. This position caused much controversy, and those who adopted it were called Sandemanians, and forined themselves into church order, in strict fellowship with the church of Scotland, but holding communion with no other. The chief opinions and practices in which this sect differs from others, are their weekly administration of the Lord's supper, washing each other's feet, &c. În 1764, Mr. Sandeman accepted an invitation to New England, where he died in 1771. His sect still subsists in Great Britain. He was author of some other theological tracts besides his Letters on Theron and Aspasio.

SANDEMANIANS. (See Sandeman.) SANDPIPER (tringa); a genus of shorebirds, allied to the snipe, plover, curlew, and godwit, and included by Linnæus under the order gralle. The bill is as long as the head, or longer, straight or slightly curved, rounded, slender, soft and flexible, without a cutting edge, and enlarged and obtuse at the extremity: it seems to perform many of the offices of a probe, and enables these birds to search in the soft mud for insects, small shells, or worms, which form their accustomed food. Their nostrils are linear, and situated in a groove of the bill. Their tongue is filiform and pointed. The legs are desti17

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tute of feathers for some distance above the knee, and the toes are short and incapable of grasping; hence these birds do not perch, but frequent the borders of ponds, rivers and marshes, especially in the vicinity of the ocean, and are often seen coursing rapidly along the strand, following the flux and reflux of the waves. Their wings are long, and their flight powerful. Some species prefer the interior and the vicinity of fresh water, and others almost exclusively inhabit the shores of the ocean. They build their nests in the grass, and the young at birth immediately follow their parents in search of food. At the approach of winter, they all quit the land of their birth, and migrate in flocks more or less numerous, to warmer climates. They moult twice a year, and their winter plumage is very different from the summer.

SANDRART, Joachim von, a German painter and engraver, chiefly esteemed in the latter capacity, was born in 1606, at Frankfort, and died in 1688. He wrote a work called the German Academy of Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting (1675, seq.).

SANDSTONE is in most cases composed chiefly of grains of quartz united by a cement, which is never very abundant, and often, indeed, is nearly or quite invisible. These grains are sometimes scarcely distinguishable by the naked eye, and sometimes are equal in size to a nut or an egg, as in those coarse sandstones called conglomerate, and sometimes puddingstone or breccia. The cement is variable in quantity, and may be calcareous or marly, argillaceous or argillo-ferruginous, or even siliceous. When siliceous, the mineral often much resembles quartz. The texture of some sandstones is very close, while that of others is so loose and porous as to admit the passage of water. Sometimes, indeed, this rock is vesicular. Some varieties are so solid as to give fire with steel, while others are friable, and may be reduced to powder even by the fingers. Its fracture is always granular or earthy, although it may be at the same time conchoidal or splintery. Some sandstones have a slaty structure, arising from scattered and insulated plates of mica, and have been called sandstone slate. Its most common color is gray or grayishwhite, sometimes with a shade of yellowbrown or green, and sometimes it is reddish or reddish-brown. In some cases, the color is uniform, in others, variegated. In addition to quartz, some sandstones embrace grains of feldspar, flint and sili

ceous slate or plates of mica. The mica is sometimes in considerable quantities in those friable sandstones which accompany coal. Some sandstones are so ferruginous as to form a valuable ore of iron, containing either an oxide or the carbonate of iron. Sandstone, although decidedly a secondary rock, has been formed at different periods, under different circumstances, and is hence associated with different rocks. Red sandstone is sometimes connected with coal. Sandstone, more particularly in the older formation, sometimes contains metallic substances disseminated through the mass, or in beds or veins. Among these are sulphurets of iron, mercury, lead and copper, pyritous copper, and arsenical cobalt. Various organic remains occur in sandstone, among which are reeds, impressions of leaves, trunks of trees, and shells, both fluviatile and marine. In the U. States, sandstone is abundant in various parts. Sandstone, in some of its varieties, is very useful in the arts, and is often known by the name of freestone. When sufficiently solid, it is employed as a building stone. In most cases, it may be cut equally well in all directions; but some varieties naturally divide into prismatic masses. Some varieties are used as mill-stones for grinding meal, or for wearing down other minerals, preparatory to a polish. These stones, while rapidly revolving, sometimes burst with a loud and dangerous explosion. When the texture is sufficiently porous, sandstone is employed for filtering water. Some varieties are used for whetstones. Some sandstones absorb moisture, and, by exposure to the changes of the atmosphere, are gradually disintegrated; others become more solid by much exposure. Puddingstone, or conglomerate, is only a very coarse sandstone. It is composed of siliceous pebbles of quartz, flint, siliceous slate, &c., united by a cement, which is usually siliceous, sometimes both siliceous and ferruginous, and sometimes a little argillaceous. These pebbles vary in size from that of a pea to that of an egg. They are ordinarily rounded or oval; and it is, in fact, chiefly by the more or less rounded form of these pebbles that pudlingstone is distinguished from breccia. It is sometimes employed for mill-stones, and some varieties receive a good polish. All true conglomerates inust of course be composed of fragments of previously existing rocks. They have, however, been formed at very different periods. A breccia is an aggregate of angular fragments of the same mineral, or of different min

erals, united by some cement. Sometimes, however, a few of the fragments are a little rounded.

SANDWICH ISLANDS; a cluster of islands in the North Pacific ocean, discovered by captains Cook and King in 1778, who gave them their present name in honor of the first lord of the admiralty. The group consists of ten islands, of which eight are inhabited, and extends from lat. 18° 50′ to 22° 20′ N., and from lon. 154° 53' to 160° 15′ W., lying about one third of the distance from the western coast of Mexico to the eastern coast of China. The population of the whole group was estimated by captain King at 400,000, but, according to Ellis, does not at present exceed 150,000, the diminution being owing partly to the desolating wars of Tamehameha's reign, and partly to the ravages of a pestilence brought in by foreign vessels, which has twice prevailed in the islands. The total superficial extent is about 6000 square miles. The principal islands in extent and population are Hawaii (Owhyhee), 4000 square miles, 85,000 inhabitants; Maui (Mowee), 600 square miles, 20,000 inhabitants; Oahu (Woahoo), 520 square miles, 20,000, containing the town of Honolulu, the residence of the king, of the foreign functionaries, and twelve or fourteen merchants, chiefly Americans, with about 7000 inhabitants; Tauai (Atooi), 525 square miles, 10,000 inhabitants. The latter island and Nihau (Oneehow) are distinguished for the cultivation of the yam, and are much resorted to by ships for supplies of that article. Most of the islands are volcanic and mountainous. In some places, the volcanoes are in activity. Several of the summits are of great height. The loftiest, Mouna Roa, and Mouna Kea, are estimated at about 15,000 feet. The climate is warm, but not unhealthy, the winter being marked only by the prevalence of heavy rains between December and March. A meteorological table gives as the greatest heat during the year, 88° of Fahrenheit, as the least, 61°. The only quad rupeds originally found in these islands were a small species of hogs, dogs, and a sort of rat. There are now large herds of cattle in Hawaii, and many tame ones in the other islands, goats, sheep, and horses. There are no poisonous reptiles, excepting centipeds, which are neither large nor numerous. There are an abundance of sea-fowl on the coasts, and in the interior a species of parrot and a kind of woodpecker, with which the images of the gods were formerly adorned. The

vegetable productions are taro (arum esculentum), yam, bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, and strawberry. Oranges, grapes, and other tropical fruits, have been introduced, and thrive well, and some culinary vegetaples are cultivated for the shipping which resorts thither. The situation of the Sandwich islands renders them important to vessels navigating the Northern Pacific, partly for repairs and provisions, and partly in commercial respects. Af ter the visit of Vancouver (1792), they were not much visited, except by traders from the U. States, who, having discovered among them the sandal wood, conveyed large quantities of it to China, where it is burnt in the temples. The independence of the Spanish colonies, and the prosecution of the whale-fishery on the coasts of Japan have greatly increased their importance. The following account of the number and tonnage of American ships which annually visit them, is from Stewart's Visit to the South Seas in 1829 and 1830 (New York,1831):-Vessels direct from the U. States for sandal wood, returning by way of China or Manilla, six (together 1800 tons); vessels bound to North-west coast,which generally winter here, five (1000 tons); vessels bound from the Spanish-American republics to China or the East Indies, eight (2500 tons); vessels owned by American residents, and trading to North-west coast, to Mexico, China, and Manilla, six (1000 tons); vessels engaged in the whale-fishery on the coast of Japan, 100 (35,000 tons); making a total of 125 vessels, and 40,000 tons. The natives are, in general, rather above the middle stature, well formed, with fine muscular limbs, and open countenances. Their hair is black or brown, and frequently curly; their complexion a kind of olive, and sometimes reddishbrown. Their language is a dialect of that spoken by the inhabitants of the Society islands. They are of a mild and gentle disposition, inquisitive and intelligent; but previously to the abolition of their idolatrous religion, the practice of sacrificing human victims prevailed among them. Since their adoption of Christianity, they have made a no less wonderful progress in the arts of civilized life than in moral character. They have many convenient and handsome houses, neat and comfortable clothing, &c. Stewart, who visited the islands in 1829, after an absence of four or five years, gives a striking description of the change which had taken place in that interval. After the visit of captain Cook, who was killed at Hawaii in 1779,

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the islands were involved in a series of destructive wars between several rival chiefs, for the undivided sovereignty. The result of these struggles was the ascendency of Tamehameha, chief of Hawaii, a sagacious, enterprising and ambitious prince. He built a navy, armed his guard in the European manner, fortified his palace with cannon, encouraged commerce, and introduced various mechanical arts among his subjects. On his death in 1819, he was succeeded by his son Rihoriho; and at about the same time idolatry was abolished and the idols burnt. During the last year of his reign, Tauai and Nihau, the only islands of the group not subdued by Tamehameha, submitted to his government. Rihoriho, with his queen, died in England in 1824, and his brother and successor, Kauikeaouli, is at present (1832) about 20 years of age. The regency has been in the hands of the queenmother, Kaahumanu. In 1820, a mission was established at Hawaii by the American Board of Foreign Missions. The missionaries fortunately arrived just after the abolition of the national idolatry, and their efforts have been attended with great success. Not only have they introduced the arts, comforts and usages of civilized society to a great extent, but the Christian religion has been embraced by nearly the whole population. Printing presses have been established, books printed in the native language, an alphabet of twelve letters (five vowels and seven consonants) invented, schools established, and churches built. The Missionary Herald for Jan., 1832, states the whole number of schools in the islands to be above 900, with 50,000 learners. Missions have been established in Oahu, Hawaii, Maui, Taui; and in 1830 a band consisting of seven persons (three missionaries), and in 1831 another of nineteen persons (eight missionaries and a printer), sailed for the same destination. See Ellis, Tour through Hawaii (3d ed. 1827); lord Byron's Voyage to the Sandwich Islands (1827); Stewart's Residence in the Sandwich Islands.

SANDWICH-LAND; a barren, desert, and frozen island in the South Atlantic ocean, discovered by captain Cook in 1775; lat. 58° 35' S.; lon. 26° 44 W Seals, whales, and other cetacea, penguins and other sea-birds, are the only animals found here.

SANDY HOOK; a small island on the coast of New Jersey, in the township of Middleton, seven miles south of Long Island, and 25 south of New York. It was formerly a peninsula. Sandy Hook,

or Point, forms a capacious harbor. Here is a light-house on the north point of the Hook, in lat. 40° 26' N., lon. 72° 2′ W. SANDYS, George; second son of the archbishop of that name, born in 1577. In 1589, he was placed at Oxford. In 1610, he commenced his travels through the Levant and other parts of the Turkish empire, returning home through Italy, and staying some time at Rome. This journey occupied him upwards of two years. On his return to England, he published, in 1615, an account of the countries through which he had passed. This work was followed by several poetical productions, the first of which, a translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, originally printed in London in 1627, with the first book of the Eneid annexed, is highly spoken of by Dryden, who styles the author "the best versifier of the last age." He also wrote a Paraphrase on the Psalms and upon the Hymns dispersed through the Old and New Testaments (London, 1636; reprinted in folio, 1638), and some other works. He died in 1643.

SANGALLO, Antonio, an eminent Italian architect of the sixteenth century, was born in the environs of Florence, and was intended for the business of a carpenter; but, happily visiting Rome, where he had two uncles who were architects, he was instructed by them in their art, his knowledge of which he perfected under Bramante, whom he succeeded as architect of the church of St. Peter. He was much employed under the popes Leo X, Clement VII, and Paul III, both in fortifying places and in the construction of public buildings, the grandeur and solidity of which have been much admired. He died in 1546.

SANGIAC (Turkish, horsetail) signifies, in the Turkish army, an officer who is allowed to bear only one horsetail, the pachas having two or three. The sangiac is also commonly the governor of a smaller district of country than a pachalic, thence called sangiacat, of which there are three or four in each pachalic. (See Turkey.) SANGIACAT. (See Sangiac, and Turkey.) SANGRAAL, or SANGREAL. (See Round Table, and Romance.)

SANGUINARINA; a vegetable alkali, discovered by Mr. A. A. Hayes, of Roxbury, in the root of the sanguinaria Canadensis, or blood-root. It is obtained as follows: Digest the bruised root in three parts of cold diluted sulphuric acid (water ten, acid one); after 24 hours, decant the fluid, and repeat the operations twice, using water but slightly acidulated; mix the li

quors, and filter, and to the clear red liquor which passes, add a solution of ammonia, so long as it occasions precipitation; decant the fluid after subsidence, and wash the brown precipitate in cold water: it is sanguinarina combined with extractive and coloring matter, and mixed with some earths. Dissolve the soluble part in warm alcohol, and wash with the same; distil the clear fluid from a glass retort; when the solution becomes turbid by concentration, it must be decanted, while hot, into cylindrical vessels, one half filled with pure cold water: the alkali is precipitated in the form of a yellowish-white bulky powder, mingled with a substance insoluble in diluted acids, and resembling resin; by dissolving the soluble part in muriatic acid with ten of water, precipitating by ammonia, and treating as above, the alkali is obtained pure. It is a soft, white powder, destitute of odor, but having a bitter, acrid taste. It renders blue vegetable colors green; when heated, it melts into a brown, transparent and brittle substance. It dissolves in most acids, and forms along with them neutral salts of a pure scarlet-red color. The salts are soluble in water, to which they communicate their red color. They are inodorous; but their powder produces great irritation in the nostrils. They are all precipitated by infusion of galls,and are decomposed by alkalies and alkaline earths. The medicinal virtues of the salts of sanguinarina arechiefly deobstruent, acrid-narcotic, and emetic. The efficacy of the blood-root is attributable solely to the presence of this alkali.

Be

SANHEDRIN (Syriac), or SYNEDRIUM (Greek); literally a council. The highest ecclesiastical and secular court of the Jews (q. v.), which was established for the decision of their internal differences, and the settlement of their affairs, was called sanhedrin. It consisted of seventy-one members, of the rank of priests, elders, and interpreters of the law (those skilled in biblical knowledge, or scribes), under the direction of the high-priest. sides this high council, which had its seat in Jerusalem, there were also inferior courts in the country towns, composed of persons of the same classes. In Jerusalem there were two of these inferior courts. These national tribunals were limited, by the Roman procurators, to the affairs of religion and the settlement of questions relating to the observance of the Mosaic law; and they could not, even in such cases, inflict the punishment of death arbitrarily. After the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, these courts