The science of Geology affords another illustration. The leading rocks bear so many characteristic marks of distinction, that no ordinary observer can mistake them, yet particular specimens approach the same standard so nearly that the most skilful observers will sometimes err, and believe basalt to be clay-stone, or gneiss granite. In teaching this science, however, the leading features of the rocks are found sufficient to guide the student to knowledge of the principles; and his own sagacity, improved by experience, enables him in due time to deal successfully with the intricacies and difficulties of the study. The same rule ought to be followed in cultivating phrenology.

An organ may thus be likened to an inverted cone, with its apex in the medulla, and its base at the surface of the brain; the broader the base and longer the distance between it and the apex, the greater will be the size, or the quantity of matter which it will contain. This simile, however, is introduced merely as an illustration, and I do not assert that the organs may be seen regularly disposed in the brain in the shape of cones. Hence, if the line from the ear to the forehead be much larger than from the ear backward, and the breadth nearly the same, we infer that the

"There are many convolutions," says Dr. Spurzheim, "in the middle line between the two hemispheres of the brain, and others at the basis and between the anterior and middle lobes, which do not appear on the surface; but it seems to me that a great part, at least, of every organ does present itself there, and further, that all the parts of each organ are equally developed, so that, though a portion only appear, the state of the whole may be inferred. The whole cerebellum does not reach the skull, yet its functions may be determined from the part which does. The cerebral parts, situated in the middle line between the hemispheres, seem proportionate to the superincumbent convolutions; at least I have always observed a proportion in the vertical direction between them."-Phrenology, p. 121.

The cerebral parts, situated around "and behind the orbit, also require some care and experience on the part of the phrenologist, to be judged of accurately. Their developement is discoverable from the position of the eye-ball, and from the figure of the superciliary ridge. According as the eye-ball is prominent or hidden in the orbit, depressed or pushed sideward, inward, or outward, we may judge of the developement of the organs situated around and behind it."—Ibid. Particular directions for observing the parts there situated will be given, when treating of the relative organs.

organs in the forehead predominate. If, on the other hand, the forehead be very narrow, as in Thurtell, and the hindhead very broad, we hold the posterior organs to predominate, although the length be the same in both directions.

The whole organs in a head should be examined, and their relative proportions noted. Errors may be committed at first; but without practice, there will be no expertness. Practice, with at least an average endowment of the organs of Form, Size, and Locality, are necessary to qualify a person to make observations with success. Individuals whose heads are very narrow between the eyes, and little developed at the top of the nose, where these organs are placed, experience great difficulty in distinguishing the situations and minute shades in the proportions of different organs. (See Note as to Dr. Gall, No. I. of Appendix.) If one organ be much developed, and the neighboring organs very little, the developed organ will present an elevation or protuberance; but if the neighboring organs be developed in proportion, no protuberance can be perceived, and the surface is smooth. The student should learn from books, plates, and casts, or personal instruction (and the last is by far the best,) to distinguish the form of each organ, and its appearance, when developed in different proportions to the others, because there are slight modifications in the position of them in each head.

The phrenological bust shows the situations of the organs, and their proportions, only in one head; and it is impossible by it to communicate more information.* The different appearances in all

* Attempts have been made by opponents to represent certain changes, in the numbering and marking of the organs in busts recently published, as a Revolu tion in Phrenology." A brief explanation will place this matter in its true light. The phrenological bust sold in the shops is an artificial head, the utility of which depends on the degree in which the delineation of the organs on it approaches to the appearances most generally presented by the organs in nature. The first bust sold in this country exhibited the organs as they would be found in a particular-head, not very common in this country, the bust having been imported from the Continent, and national heads being modified as much as national features. On 1st October, 1824, a new bust was published in Edinburgh, in which the delineation approached nearer to the appearance and relative proportions presented by the organs in this country. Subsequent observations showed that this bust

the varieties of relative size, must be discovered by inspecting a number of heads; and especially by contrasting instances of extreme developement with others of extreme deficiency. No adequate idea of the foundation of the science can be formed until this is done. In cases of extreme size of single organs, the form delineated in the bust is distinctly perceived.

The question will perhaps occur, If the relative proportions of the organs differ in each individual, and if the phrenological bust represents only their most common proportions, how are their boundaries to be distinguished in any particular living head? The

might be brought still more closely to resemble the most common proportions of the organs in Britain; and, on 1st April, 1829, certain modifications were made on it accordingly. The nature of this operation may be explained by a simple illustration. Suppose that, in 1819, an artist had modelled a bust, resembling, as closely as his skill could reach, the face most commonly met with in Scotland, and that, to save the trouble of referring to the different features by name, he had attached numbers to them, beginning at the chin, and calling it No. 1., and so on up to the brow, which we may suppose to be No. 33. In this bust he would necessarily give certain proportions to the eyes, nose, cheek, mouth, and chin. But suppose he were to continue his observations for five years, it is quite conceivable he might come to be of opinion that, by making the nose a little shorter, the mouth a little longer, the cheeks a little broader, and the chin a little sharper, he could bring the artificial face nearer to the most general form of the Scottish countenance; and that he might arrange the numbers of the features with greater philosophical accuracy; and suppose he were to publish a new edition of his bust with these modifications of the features, and with the numeration changed so that the mouth should be No. 1., and the chin No. 5., and the brow No. 35., what should we think of a critic who should announce these alterations as “a revolution" in human physiognomy, and assert that, because the numbers were changed, the nose had obliterated the eyes, and the chin had extinguished the mouth? This is what the opponents have done in regard to the new phrenological bust. In the modifications which have been made on it, the essential forms and relative situations of all the organs have been preserved, and there is no instance of the organ of Benevolence being turned into that of Veneration, or Veneration into Hope, any more than, in the supposed new modelled face, the nose would be converted into the eyes, or the eyes into the mouth.

In regard to the numeration, again, the changes are exactly analogous to those which are before supposed to take place in regard to the features: The organ of Ideality formerly was numbered 16, and now it is numbered 19, but the organ and function are nothing different on this account. Dr. Spurzheim adopted a new order of numbering, from enlarged observation of the anatomical relation of the organs, and his improvements have been adopted in Edinburgh and Dublin

answer is, By their forms and appearances. Each organ has a form, appearance, and situation, which it is possible, by practice, to distinguish, in the living head, otherwise Phrenology cannot have any foundation.

When one organ is very largely developed, it encroaches on the space usually occupied by the neighboring organs, the relative situations of which are thereby slightly altered. When this occurs, it may be distinguished by the greatest prominence being near the centre of the large organ, and the swelling extending over a portion only of the other. In these cases the shape should be attended to; for the form of the organ is then easily recognised, and is a sure indication of the particular one which is largely developed. The observer should learn, by inspecting a skull, to distinguish the mastoid process behind the ear, as also bony excrescences sometimes formed by the sutures, several bony prominences which occur in every head, from elevations produced by developement of brain.

In observing the appearance of individual organs, it is proper to begin with the largest, and select extreme cases. The mask of Mr. Joseph Hume may be contrasted with that of Dr. Chalmers for Ideality; the organ being much larger in the latter than in the former. The casts of the skulls of Raphael and Haggart may be compared at the same part; the difference being equally conspicuous. The cast of the Reverend Mr. M. may be contrasted with that of Dempsey, in the Love of Approbation; the former having this organ large, and the latter small. Self-Esteem in the latter being exceedingly large, may be compared with the same organ in the skull of Dr. Hette, in whom Love of Approbation is much larger than Self-Esteem. The organ of Constructiveness in Raphael may be compared with the same organ in the New Holland skulls. Destructiveness in Bellingham may be compared with the same organ in the skulls of the Hindoos; the latter people being in general tender of life. Firmness large, and Conscientiousness deficient, in King Robert Bruce, may be compared with the same organs reversed in the cast of the head of a lady (Mrs. H.), which is sold as illustrative of these organs. The object of making

these contrasts is to obtain an idea of the different appearances

presented by organs, when very large and very small.

The terms used to denote the gradations of size in the different organs, in an increasing ratio, are

Captain Ross has suggested, that numerals may be applied with advantage to the notation of developement. He uses decimals; but these appear unnecessarily minute. The end in view may be attained by such a scale as the following :

The intermediate figures denote intermediate degrees of size, for which we have no names. The advantage of adopting numerals would be, that the values of the extremes being known, we could judge accurately of the dimensions denoted by the intermediate numbers; whereas it is difficult to apprehend precisely the degrees of magnitude indicated by the terms small, full, large, &c. unless we have seen them applied by the individual who uses them.

The terms small, moderate, full, &c. indicate the relative proportions of the organs to each other in the same head; but as the different organs may bear the same proportions in a small and in a large head, these terms do not enable the reader to discover, whether the head treated of be in its general magnitude small, moderate, or large. To supply this information, measurements by callipers are resorted to; but these are used not to indicate the dimensions of particular organs, for whien purpose they are not adapted, but merely to designate the general size of the head.