[From the Encyclopedia Britannica 1970] PANAMA CANAL (By Capt. Miles P. Du Val, Jr., U.S. Navy, Retired) Panama Canal, a high-level artificial interoceanic waterway of the lake and lock type at the Isthmus of Panama connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, owned, operated and controlled by the United States under treaty, for the transit of vessels of commerce and of war of all nations on terms of equality, with tolls that are just and equitable. The Canal Zone, through which it was built, is the constitutionally acquired territorial possession of the United States granted in perpetuity by the Republic of Panama for the construction of the canal and for its perpetual maintenance, operation, sanitation and protection. The gross total investment of the United States in the canal enterprise, including defense expenditures, from 1904 to June 30, 1968, amounted to $6,368,009,000; and net to over $5,000,000,000. By using the canal, vessels plying between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States can eliminate the Cape Horn route and save a distance of about 8,000 nautical mi., while journeys between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the North and South American continents can be reduced by 3,000-4,000 mi.; vessels from Europe to eastern Asia and Australia can effect a saving of 1,000-2,000 mi. Hence the canal is of the greatest international importance, strategically and economically. This article is divided into the following sections: I. The Waterway. 1. Description. 2. Navigation. II. The Canal Zone 1. Area and Tidewaters. 2. Sovereignty. 3. Administration. 4. Tolls. 5. Canal Traffic. 6. Defense. III. History 1. Panama Railroad, 1849-55. 2. French Project, 1879-1904. United States Policy, 1850-81. 4. Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899-1901. 5. U.S. Diplomacy, 1901-03. 6. Building Canal, 1904-14. 7. Principal Engineering and Construction Projects After 1914. S. Reorganization and Policy Determination. 9. Panama-U.S. Relations. 1. Description I. THE WATERWAY The Panama canal does not cross the isthmus from east to west as generally supposed, but from northwest to southeast, with the Atlantic entrance 331⁄2 mi. N. and 27 mi. W. of the Pacific entrance. Located in one of the heavier rainfall areas of the world with its longest section formed by impounding the waters of the Chagres river valley by a dam at Gatun, the canal's principal features include: twin-flight locks, dams and spillways at both ends of the canal; the summit-level Gatun lake; an excavated gorge across the continental divide, renamed as Gaillard cut, connecting Gatun lake with the Pacific locks; a small Miraflores lake between two sets of Pacific locks; and two terminals. The Atlantic terminus is at Cristóbal on Limón bay, a natural harbour protected against storms from the north by east and west breakwaters. The Pacific terminus is at Balboa, a sheltered artificial harbour with its Pacific entrance channel safeguarded from silt-bearing currents by a causeway from the mainland to the fortified islands in the Bay of Panama. The canal length from shore line to shore line is 40.27 statute miles; and from deep water to deep water, 50.72 miles. From north to south, its main parts are: 1. Atlantic sea level dredged channel of 500 ft. bottom width from deep water to Gatun locks, about 7.4 mi. 2. Gatun locks in three steps from sea level to Gatun lake, 85 ft. above sea level. 3. Gatun lake section with channels varying in width from 1,000 ft. at Gatun to 500 ft. at Gamboa where Gaillard cut begins, distance about 24 mi. 4. Gaillard cut of 500 ft. minimum bottom width to Pedro Miguel locks at the south end of the cut, distance about 8 mi. 5. Pedro Miguel locks in one step (31 ft.) to the intermediate Miraflores lake, 54 ft. above sea level. 6. Miraflores lake with channel 750 ft. wide to Miraflores locks, distance about 1 mi. 7. Miraflores locks in two steps to Pacific sea level. 8. Pacific sea level dredged section to the Bay of Panama, distance about 8.5 mi. The controlling depth for the Atlantic dredged section from deep water to Gatun locks is 42 ft. below mean low water; from Gatun locks to Pedro Miguel, 42 ft. below the minimum Gatun lake level of 82 ft.; from Pedro Miguel locks to Miraflores, 41 ft. below the mean Miraflores lake level of 54 ft.; and from Miraflores locks to deep water in the Pacific, 42.4 ft. below mean low water spring (maximum) tides. The canal is equipped with modern aids to navigation. The Panama canal has had several major operational improvements since opening to traffic in 1914 including the Madden Dam and Power project, with its upstream lake to conserve water for lockages and maintenance of channel depths in Gatun lake during dry seasons and to reduce the danger of floods from the upper Chagres in wet seasons; replacement of lock towing locomotives; and illumination of Gaillard cut, its widening from 300 ft. to 500 ft. and deepening from 42 ft. to 47 ft., started in 1959. On April 30, 1968, large surface ground cracks of depth were discovered on Hodges hill on the west bank of Culebra reach of Gaillard cut, and studies were begun to determine what should be done to prevent slides. Locks. No part of the canal attracts more attention than its massive locks. Constructed in duplicate to enable simultaneous lockages of vessels in the same or opposite direction, all locks have usable dimensions of 1,000 ft. length, 110 ft. width, and a depth to accommodate vessels drawing 40 ft. in salt water. Each lock gate has two leaves, the leaves being floatable structures 65 ft. wide by 7 ft. thick, varying in height from 47 to 82 ft., weighing from 390 to 730 tons, and operated by 40 h.p. motors through gear arrangements. Locks are equipped with unique safety devices, notably hydraulically operated fender chains and electric towing locomotives. The fender chains protect lock gates against vessels that may get out of control when approaching locks, and are dropped into grooves to permit passage. With the exception of small craft, vessels are not allowed to pass through locks under their own power, but are required to be drawn by towing locomotives, varying in number from four to eight, depending on ship characteristics. The time required for passage through the locks depends upon many factors, including size of vessel and its handling features. Generally, lockage intervals are 80 min. at Gatun, 40 min. at Pedro Miguel, and 60 min. at Miraflores. Gatun Dam and Spillway.-The key structure of the Panama canal is Gatun dam, near the end of the Chagres river valley. It is about 11⁄2 mi. long on its crest, 12 mi. wide at the base, 400 ft. wide at the water surface, 100 ft. wide at the top, and its crest is 105 ft. above sea-level. It contains 22,958,069 cu. yd. of material. Located on a natural hill of rock near the centre of the dam, Gatun spillway was designed to provide adequate control of Gatun lake levels during the maximum known discharge of the Chagres river. The dam and spillway together with Gatun locks form the northern barrier that creates Gatun lake. Gatun Lake and Gaillard Cut.-Gatun lake, at its normal height of 85 ft., has an area of 166 sq. mi. and a shore line of 1,100 mi.; with a watershed of 1,285 sq. mi., which includes territory of the Republic of Panama. Its designed operating range is 5 ft., between water levels of 87 and 82 ft above sea level Gaillard cut, formerly called Culebra cut, is an artificial extension of Gatun lake across the continental divide to Pedro Miguel locks, with its original bottom 99-592 - 78 - 32 at a maximum of 40 ft. above sea level, on an alignment that passes between Gold hill and Contractors hill. Its restricted channel and rocky banks make this cut the most hazardous part of the canal. A steady growth in vessel sizes and number carrying hazardous cargo has increased the frequency of transits requiring one-way navigation in Gaillard cut. Pacific Dams, Miraflores Lake and Spillway.-Across the south end of Gaillard cut, a pair of one-lift (31 ft.) Pedro Miguel locks and two flanking dams to nearby hills form the southern barrier closing the upper valley of the Rio Grande and holding the Gatun lake water level. With crests 105 ft. above sea level, the east dam extends about 300 ft. to Cerro Luisa and the west extends about 1,400 feet to Cerro Paraiso. The east dam is a concrete wall, 260 ft. long, covered with earth; the west is earth and rock, containing 699,518 cu. yd. of material. At Miraflores, a set of two-life locks and two dams from a second barrier closing the lower valley of the Rio Grande and creating the intermediate Miraflores lake. This lake, at 54 ft. above sea level, has an area of 1.5 sq. mi. Its watershed is 38 sq. mi. The major part of the east dam at Miraflores is the spillway, designed to handle free flow of water from Gatun lake through one chamber at Pedro Miguel in event of accident. The west dam, with crest 40 ft. wide and 70 ft. above sea level extending 2,700 ft. to Cerro Cocoli, is the second largest dam of the canal, containing about 2,388,423 cu. yd. of material. Terminal Facilities.-The Atlantic terminus affords safe anchorages in Limón bay and convenient pier berths at Cristóbal. The Pacific terminus has mooring buoy, dock and pier berths at Balboa; also an unprotected outer anchorage in the Bay of Panama. All piers are modern, 1,000 ft. long by 200 ft. wide, with enclosed sheds and railroad service, ample for storage of consignments and transshipment of cargo. Both terminals are equipped for servicing of vessels, provisioning and repairs. The principal repair installations are on the Atlantic side near Mount Hope, with a 386-ft. dry dock. Larger marine and railway repair shops on the Pacific side are closed, with a 1,044 ft. dry dock in a stand-by status. Salvage tugs and other wrecking equipment are available. 2. Navigation All vessels entering or leaving a terminal port, maneuvering in Canal Zone waters, or in transit, in general, are required to take pilots, who have charge of navigation and movement. Transits are made under rigid traffic controls. The average time required to transit is from seven to eight hours. 1. Area and Tidewaters II. THE CANAL ZONE The Canal Zone is a strip of land and land under water 10 mi. wide with boundaries generally 5 mi. from the centre of the canal except for the western salient covering the mouth of the Chagres river, the arms of Gatun lake extending into the Republic of Panama, and Madden lake. Beginning in the Caribbean, "three marine miles" from mean low water as provided by treaty, the zone exextends across the isthmus to a distance of "three marine miles" from mean low water in the Pacific, but excludes the Panamanian cities of Colón and Panama. The Canal Zone includes all of Gatun lake and surrounding shores up to the 100 ft. contour and all of Madden lake and its shores up to the 260 ft. contour. The total area of the Canal Zone is 647.29 sq. mi.-372.32 sq. mi. land, 185.52 sq. mi. fresh water and 89.45 sq. mi. salt water, including the Atlantic and Pacific coastal waters within the three-mile limit. The tides at the Atlantic and Pacific terminals differ in both magnitude and character. At Cristóbal on the Atlantic side they are irregular and small, with an extreme range of 3.05 ft. At Balboa on the Pacific side, they are remarkably regular with two highs and two lows every lunar day of 24 hr. and 50 min., with an extreme range of 22.7 ft. 2. Sovereignty Under the authority of the Panama Canal act of 1912 and in conformity with treaty, Pres. William H. Taft, by executive order of Dec. 5, 1912, declared that "all land and land under water within the limits of the Canal Zone are necessary for the construction, maintenance, operation, protection, and sanitation of the Panama Canal." Since title to all such land was acquired by the United States, the Canal Zone, in its entirety, is a United States government reservation. The only private enterprise activities permitted within the zone are on lands rented under revocable licenses, normally to shipping interests, communications companies, banks, agriculturists and others directly connected with the canal or its operation. Areas assigned for other government purposes, in the mid-1960s, included 253 sq. mi. for the armed forces, with 176 to the army, 22 to the navy and 55 to the air force; 6 to the Smithsonian institution as a wildlife preserve on Barro Colorado; 5 as the Madden Forest preserve: 0.96 to the Federal Aviation agency; 1 to commercial licenses and 13 to Canal Zone town sites. Remaining land, largely mountain or jungle, totals over 193 sq. mi. All areas continue subject to the civil jurisdiction of the Canal Zone government in conformity with the Canal Zone code. 3. Administration The Panama canal enterprise, as reorganized July 1, 1951, under public law 841, 81st congress, approved Sept. 29, 1950 (Thompson act), consists of two main units, the Panama Canal company and the Canal Zone government, with the dominant mission of the safe, convenient and economic transit of vessels. The Canal Zone is divided into two districts, the Balboa (or Pacific) subdivision and the Cristóbal (or Atlantic) subdivision. Balboa and Cristóbal.-These subdivisions are coterminous with the Balboa and Cristóbal divisions of the U.S. district court. Their common boundary crosses the Canal Zone at right angles just northwest of Barbacoas Island. The Balboa subdivision includes all Canal Zone area lying southeasterly of this boundary, and the Cristóbal subdivision, all lying northwesterly of it. Towns, except Gamboa, are clustered near the terminals convenient to canal and shipping activities, in which, directly or indirectly, most of the civilian population in the zone is employed. Gamboa, because it is the headquarters of dredging operations, is located north of Gaillard cut to prevent isolation of equipment from lake dumps in event of slides. All towns have the facilities of well-managed communities in the United States, with high standards of health, sanitation and education. The canal administrative centre is at Balboa Heights. A long-felt defect in the 1903 treaty was failure to provide for adequate public crossings of the canal for the Canal Zone and Panama, both diaided by the waterway. This condition was initially corrected by the United States by a toll-free ferry at Balboa in 1932 under legislation sponsored by Rep. Maurice H. Thatcher, former member of the Isthmian Canal commission for whom it was named; and finally, in 1962, pursuant to treaty, by the toll-free Thatcher Ferry bridge to replace the ferries. The population of the Canal Zone in 1968, including dependents of the U.S. armed forces, was 50,405, with 14,477 in the Cristóbal district and 35,928 in the Balboa district. The population of the principal communities was 3,489 for Gamboa and 3,139 for Balboa. The Panama Canal Company. This is a corporate instrumentality of the United States, operated under the management of its board of directors and charged with the maintenance and operation of the Panama canal and the conduct of business-type operations incident thereto and to the civil government of the Canal Zone. The basic law requires that the company be self-sustaining. Its obligations include its own operating expenses, the net cost of civil government, interest and depreciation on United States investment in the enterprise, and $430,000 of the $1,930,000 annually paid to the Republic of Panama, the remainder being provided by the department of state, and thereby excluded in fixing tolls. The Canal Zone Government. This is an independent agency of the United States, administered by a governor of the Canal Zone, under the supervision of the president, or such officer of the United States as may be designated by him (secretary of the army). It performs the functions of city, county and state governments, with certain attributes of diplomatic character in connection with the Republic of Panama. The governor, who is appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate, is ex-officio a director and president of the Panama Canal company. The judicial functions of the Canal Zone government are performed by two magistrate's courts, Balboa and Cristóbal, each presided over by a magistrate appointed by the governor; and by a United States district court of the fifth judi |