with their arms, but threatened no quarter next time he should meet with them. On the 7th the Supreme Council refigned their authority to the king. On the 9th Suwarrow made his triumphant entry into Warfaw; during which the citizens obferved a mournful filence. On the 10th he went with much pomp to pay his respects to King Stanislaus; and to complete this execrable tragedy, oftentatious and folemn blafphemy was called in the rft of December was fet apart for folemn thanksgiving, and Te Deum fung for the triumph of powerful oppreffion over perfecuted virtue, to the God of all mercy, whofe altars had been stained by the blood of the innocent, and whofe praifes were chanted by murderers, amidst the groans of the victims. The Polish patriots, to the num ber of 30,000, who refused to accede to the capi tulation, went to Sandomir under Wawrzecki, but were foon forced to difband by the Ruffians and Pruffians. Another corps of 6000, under Wawrzecki, Madalinski, and Dambrowski, went to Gallicia. A powerful military force was stationed at Warsaw, and cannon pointed at the city in every direction to keep it in subjection. Mean time Kofciusko recovered of his wounds under the care of Madam Chrnozazow. On the 20th Dec. a courier arrived from the emprefs, demanding the arreftation of Count. Ignatius Potocki, and several other patriots, whom the fent to Petersburg; and the fame meffenger brought orders to King Stanislaus to retire to Grodno ; and he accordingly left Warsaw on the 7th Jan. 1795.

lately allowed to depart from Warfaw, Kofciusko requested death, but the general preferred taking him prifoner. The Polish infantry continued to fight with a degree of valour approaching to fury. Tais difafter excited universal regret at Warfaw, yet the Supreme Council published a fpirited proclamation, exhorting the Poles to remember their motto, Liberty or Death! to preferve their ion, and redouble their efforts. A letter was allo fent by the Council to Kofciufko, full of pralle for his patriotism; in return to which, he informed them of the kind treatment he had received from Gen. Ferfen, and the care taken of his wounds. The Ruffians under Ferfen foon after fummoned Warfaw, and on being refufed, after joining all the corps under Ferfen, Dernfeld, Danilow, and Suwarrow, they on the 4th Nov. attacked the fuburb of PRAGA, or PRAGUE, which is feparated from Warsaw by the Viftula, and was defended by above 100 cannon on 33 batteries. The ferocious Suwarrow 'ordered his foldiers to mount to the affault as they had done at limael, by climbing over their dead and woun. ded countrymen as well as their enemies, and to fight only with fabre and bayonet. The Ruffians obeyed his orders with favage impetuofity, and prefented themselves all at once before the lines Prague. Thus furrounded, the Polish generals found themfelves unable to oppofe 50,000 men with only 10,000. The cry, raised by the Ruffias, reached to the other fide of the Viftula, and Added to the confternation of the Poles, who were engaged with the rest of the Ruffian troops, and endeavoured to retreat into Warsaw, over a bridge, but were dreadfully slaughtered in the attempt, as well as great part of the garrifon of Prague. After a fevere conflict of 8 hours, refiftance on the part of the Poles ceased: but the alfacre by the deteftable Suwarrow, who, from bis habitual cruelty, was fingled out for this butchery, continued for two hours longer; and the pillage lafted till next day at noon: sooo Poles were flain in the affault, the reft were imprifoned or difperfed. The citizens were forced to lay down their arms, and their houses were plandered by the merciless Ruffians; who, after the battle had ceafed ten hours, at 9 at night fet fire to the town, and again began to maffacre the people; and thus 9000 perfons, unarmed men, defenceless women, and harmless infants, perifh ed, either in the flames or by the fword, and nearly the whole fuburb was reduced to afhes. Durag the whole of this fiege, not lefs than 30,000 Poles were put to death. In this exigence, Count Potocki propofed to treat with the Ruffians in the name of the republic; but was haughtily anwered by the favage Suwarrow, that the emprefs was not at war with the republic, and that his object was only to reduce the refractory fubjects. Deputies were then fent from the Magiftrates of Warfaw, to furrender the city, on the fingle condition of preferving their lives and property. Suwarrow infifted on the furrender of their arms. This was refufed by the Polish foldiers, and their general, Wawrzecki, with many others, refufed to take part in the capitulation: whereupon Suwarrow allowed the military to leave Warfaw VOL. XVIU. PART 1.

(27.) POLAND, INHABITANTS of. When Poland was an independent kingdom or republic, the inhabitants confifted of nobles, citizens, and peafants. The firft poffeffed great privileges, which they enjoyed, partly by the indulgence of their kings, and partly by ancient cuftom and prefcrip. tion. Some of them had the title of prince, count, or baron; but no fuperiority or pre-eminence on that account over the reft, which was only to be obtained by fome public poft or dignity. They had the power of life and death over their vaffals; paid no taxes; were fubject to none but the kings had a right to all mines and falt-works on their eftates; to all offices and employments, civil, mi litary, and ecclefiaftic; could not be cited or tried out of the kingdom; might choofe whom they would for their king, and lay him under what re ftraints they pleased; and none but they and the burghers of particular towns could purchase lands. In short, they were almoft entirely independent, enjoying many other privileges and prerogatives befides thofe we have specified; but if they engaged in trade, they forfeited their nobility. The Poles are perfonable, and have good complexions. They are efteemed a brave, honest people, with out diffimulation, and exceedingly hofpitable. They clothe themfelves in furs in winter, and over all they throw a fhort cloak. No people keep grander equipages than the gentry. They confi dered themfelves as fo many fovereign princes & and had their guards, bands of mufic, and open houfes: but the lower fort of the people were, and we fear ftill are, in the loweft ftate of flavery. The exercifes of the gentry are hunting, riding, M

dancing,

dancing, vaulting, &c. They refide moftly upon their eftates in the country; and maintain themfelves and families by agriculture, breeding of bees, and grazing.

(28.) POLAND, LANGUAGE OF THE PEOPLE OF. The Polish tongue is a dialect of the Sclavonic. See PHILOLOGY, Sec. XII. It is neither copious nor harmonious. Many of the words, as they are written, have not a fingle vowel in them; but the High Dutch and Latin are understood and fpoken pretty commonly, though incorrectly. The language in Lithuania differs much from that of the other provinces. True learning, and the study of the arts and fciences, have been little attended to in Poland, till of late they began to be regard ed with a more favourable eye, and to be not only patronized, but cultivated by feveral of the nobles and others, both laymen and ecclefiaftics. (29.) POLAND, LATE GOVERNMENT, ELEC. TIONS, AND CONSTITUTION OF. The kings of Poland were anciently hereditary and abfolute; but afterwards became elective and limited. In the reign of Lewis, in the end of the 14th century, feveral limitations were laid on the royal prerogative. In that of Cafimir IV. in 1446, reprefentatives from the palatinates were first called to the diet; the legislative power till then having been lodged in the ftates, and the executive in the king and fenate. On the deceafe of Sigifmund Auguftus, it was enacted, "That the choice of a king for the future fhould perpetually remain free and open to all the nobles of the kingdom :" As foon as the throne was vacant, all the courts of juftice remained in a state of inaction, and all the authority was transferred to the primate, who, in quality of interrex, had in fome refpects more power than the king. The place of election was the field of Wola, at the gates of Warfaw. All the nobles of the kingdom had a right of voting. The Poles encamped on the left fide of the Viftula, and the Lithuanians on the right, each under the banners of their palatinates, which made a fort of civil army; confifting of between 150, and 200,000 men, affembled to exercise the high eft act of freedom. Those who were not able to provide a horse and a fabre stood behind on foot, armed with fcythes, and did not feem at all lefs proud than the reft, as they had the fame right of voting. The field of election was furrounded by a ditch with three gates, to avoid confufion, one to the E. for Great Poland, another to the S. for Little Poland, and a third to the W. for Lithua nia. In the middle of the field, called Koalu, was erected a great building of wood, named the Szopa or hall for the senate, at whofe debates the deputies were prefent, and carried the refult of them to the palatinates. The marshal acted a very important part; for, being the mouth of the nobility, he had it in his power to do great fervice to the candidates; and he drew up the inftrument of election. It was prohibited to appear at the election with regular troops, to avoid all violence. The nobles were, however, always armed with pistols and fabres, and committed great exceffes. All candidates were exprefsly excluded from the field of election. The king was to be elected nemine contradicente, by all the fuffrages without exception. When this happened, the $

air inftantly refounded with the king's name, with cries of vivat, and the noise of pistols. If all the palatines agreed in their nominations, the primate got on horseback; and then the profoundeft filence fucceeding to the greatest noife, he asked three times if all were fatisfied; and after a general approbation, three times proclaimed the king; and the grand marshal of the crown repeated the proclamation 3 times at the 3 gates of the camp. But this fketch of a free and peaceable election was feldom realized. The corruption of the great, the fury of the people, intrigues and factions, the gold and the arms of foreign powers, frequently filled the fcene with violence and blood. Before the king was proclaimed, the pacta conventa was read aloud to him, which on his knees at the altar he fwore to obferve. The principal articles were, that the king fhould not attempt to encroach on the liberty of the people, by rendering the crown hereditary; but preferve all the laws refpecting freedom of election; ratify all treaties with foreign powers approved by the diet: cultivate peace, tranquillity, and the intereft of the realm: that he should not coin money but in the name of the republic; that in making war, peace, or levies, hiring auxiliaries, or admitting foreign troops, the confent of the diet and fenate fhould be neceffary: that all of fices and preferments should be given to the natives of Poland and Lithuania; and that no pre tence fhould be made for introducing foreigners: that the officers of his guards should be Poles of Lithuanians; and that the colonel fhould be ol the order of Polish nobility: that the king fhould not marry without the approbation of the fenate; that he fhould regulate with the fenate the num ber of forces for the defence of the kingdom that the expences of his civil lift should be the fame with thofe of his predeceffors: that he fhould not diminish the treasure kept at Cracow; but endeavour to augment that and the number of the crown-jewels: that he fhould borrow no money without the confent of the diet: that he fhould not equip a naval force without the full approbation of the republic: that he should profefs the Roman Catholic faith, promote, main tain, and defend it, through all the Polish domi nions: and finally, that all their liberties, rights, and privileges, fhould be preserved to all Polan ders and Lithuanians, without change, alteration, or violation, except by the confent of the repub lic. The diet was compofed of the king, the fenate, bifhops, and the deputies of the nobility and gentry of every palatinate, called comitia togata, when the ftates affembled in the city without arms and horfes; or comitia paludata, when they met in the fields armed, as during an interregnum, at the diet of election. It was a prerogative of the crown to affemble the diet at any place, except on a coronation, which the custom fixed at the capital. The diet never fat more than fix weeks, even in the most preffing emergencies: they have even broken up in the middle of an important debate, and left the bufinefs to a fu ture meeting! Every palatinate had 3 reprefenta tives, though the bufinets devolved on one calicd a nuncio, who was elected for his ability and experience; the other two being added only to give

weight

before it was new-modelled by the partitioning powers. That it was a very bad conftitution is plain, but these reformers did not improve it. For two centuries at leaft, the Poles with great propriety denominated their government a republic, because the king was fo exceedingly limited in his prerogative, that he refembled more the chief of a commonwealth, than the fovereign of a monarchy. That prerogative, too, restricted to afford protection to the peafants groaning under the ariftocratic tyranny of the nobles, was, after the partition treaty, till farther reftrained by the establishment of the permanent council, which was vefted with the whole executive authority, leaving to the fovereign nothing but the name. The permanent council confifted of 36 perfons, elected by the diet out of the nobility; and though the king, when prefent, prefided in it, he could not exert a fingle act of power but with the confent of the majority.

weight to this leading member. As thefe deputies, fince the reign of Cafimir III. had feats in the diet, it divided the general affembly into two bodies, the upper and lower; the one compofed of the fenate, the fuperior clergy, and the great offers; the other of the reprefentatives of the palatinates, who prepared all business for the fuperior body. The first bufinefs of the affembly was to choose a marefchal; upon which occafion the debates and tumults often ran fo high, that the whole time for the feffion of the diet was spent in wrangling about the election of a speaker, who had nothing to do but return to his own home. The marefchal acquainted the king with the inftructions of the deputies from their conftituents, the grievances and the abuses they required to be remedied. He was anfwered by a fet fpeech from the chancellor, reporting the king's incliaica to fatisfy his people. Not only an unanimity of voices was neceffary to pafs any bill, and conftitute a decree of the diet, but every bill re quired to be affented, to unanimously, or none Look effect. Thus, if out of 20 bills, one was op poled by a fingle voice, called liberum veto, all the reft were thrown out, and the diet met, deliberated, and debated for fix weeks to no purpofe. To add to the other inconveniences attending the caftitution of the diet of Poland, a fpirit of veality in the deputies, and a general corruption, had feized all ranks in that affembly. Deputies came with a full refolution of profiting by their patriotifm. Determined to oppofe the moft falutary measures of the court, they either withdrew from the affembly, protefted againft all that should be tranfacted in their abfence, or excited fuch a clamour as rendered it neceffary for the court to lence them by fome lucrative penfion or emplayment. Thus, not only the bufinefs of the fembly was obftructed by its own members, but frequently by largeffes from neighbouring powers, and fometimes by the liberality of an open eney, who had the art of diftributing money with ddcretion. The fenate was compofed of the bithops, palatines, caftellans, and ten officers of fate, who derived a right from their dignities of fitting in that affembly; in all, amounting to 144 members, who were itiled fenators of the kingdom Of counsellors of the ftate, and who had the title of excellency, a dignity fupported by no penfion or moluments annexed. The fenate prefided over the laws, was the guardian of liberty, the judge of nght, and the protector of juftice and equity. All the members, except the bishops, who were fena. sex officio, were nominated by the king, and they took an oath to the republic before they were permitted to enter upon their functions. They continued for life: at the general diet they lat on the right and left of the king, without regard to feniority. They were the mediators between the monarch and the fubject, and, in conjunction with the king, ratified all laws paffed by the nobility. As a fenator was bound by oath to maintain the liberties of the republic, it was thought no difrefpect to remind the prince of his duty. They were his counsellors, and this free dom of fpeech was an infeparable prerogative of their office. Such was the conftitution of Poland

(30.) POLAND, LATE REVENUE AND FORCES, OF. Before the late convulfions, the king's revenue was all clear to himself; for he paid no troops, not even his own guards; but all the forces, as well as the officers of ftate, were paid by the republic. The public revenues arofe chiefly from the crown lands, the falt-mines in the palatinate of Cracow: from the rents of Marienburg, Dirfhau, and Regenhus, from the government of cow, and district of Niepolomiez, and from ancient tolls and cuftoms, particularly thofe of Elbing and Dantzic; but Pruffia has got poffeffion of the most lucrative cuftoms. The order of the White Eagle was inftituted by Auguftus I. in 1705. Its enfign is a crofs of gold enamelled with red, and appendant to a blue ribbon. The motto, Pro fide, rege, et lege. The ci-devant ftanding forces of Poland were divided into the crown army, and thofe of Lithuania; confifting of horse and foot, amounting to between 10,000 and 30,000 men. The troops were moftly cantoned on the crown lands, and in Polard paid by a capitation or poll-tax; but in Lithuania other taxes were levied for this purpose. Moft of the foot were Germans. On any fudden and imminent danger, the whole body of the nobility, with their vallals, were obliged to appear in the field on horfeback; and the cities and towns furnished a certain number of foot-foldiers, with carriages and military ftores: but for want of proper arms, provifions, fubordination, and difcipline, this body has pro ved of little advantage to the republic, Dantzic is the only place in the Polifa dominions that deferves the name of a fortrefs, and it is now in the poffeffion of Pruffia. Such was the military eftablishment of Poland before the partition treaty.

(31.) POLAND, LATEST AND BEST CONSTI TUTION OF. Of this conftitution, the firft article eftablished the Roman Catholic faith, with all its privileges and immunities, as the dominant na tional religion; granting to all other people, of whatever perfuafion, peace in matters of faith, and the protection of government, The 2d guaranteed to the nobility or the equeftrian order, all the privileges which it had enjoyed under the kings of the houfe of Jagellon. The 3d and 4th

M :

articles

and Lublin. This country and Red Ruffia were feized by the emperor Joseph II.

POLANDER, n. f. a native of Poland. See POLAND, § 26.

POLANGEN, a town of Samogitia, 44 miles NW. of Medniki.

POLANIECZ, a town of Poland, in Sandomirz, 28 miles SW. of Sandomirz.

(1.) POLAR. adj. [polaire, Fr. from pole.] Found near the pole; lying near the pole; iffuing from the pole; relating to the pole.

As when two polar winds, blowing adverse Upon the Cronian fea, together drive Mountains of ice.

Milton.

If any fuffer on the polar coaft, The rage of Arctos, and eternal froft. Prior. (2.) POLAR, in general, fomething relating to the poles of the world, or poles of the artificial globes.

(3.) POLAR REGIONS, thofe parts of the world which lie near the north and fouth poles. See POLE, $4.

(15) POLARITY. n. S. [from polar.] Tendency to the pole. This polarity from refrigeration, upon extremity and defect of a loadstone, might touch a needle anywhere. Brown.

(2.) POLARITY, the quality of a thing confidered as having poles, or a tendency to turn itself into one certain pofture; but chiefly used in speaking of the magnet. See MAGNETISM♫

*POLARY. adj. [polaris, Lat.] Tending to the pole; having a direction towards the poles.Irons, heated red hot, and cooled in the meridian from north to fouth, contract a polary power. Brown.

(1.) POLCENIGO, a diftri&ct of Maritime Auftria, in Friuli, containing one town, a castle, 7 villages, and 3212 fouls, in 1797.

(2) POLCENIGO, a town in the above district, on the borders of the Trevifano, 23 miles N. of Trevigio, and 32 W. of Udina.

POLDER, a town of Africa, on the Gold Coast, in the canton of Agouna.

(1.) POLE, Reginald, cardinal, younger son of Sir Richard Pole, Lord Montague, was born at Stoverton castle, in Staffordshire, in the year 1500. At 7 years of age he was fent to a Carthufian monaftery at Shene, near Richmond in Surry; and thence, when about 12, removed to Magdalen college in Oxford. In 1513 he took the degree of A. B. and was admitted to deacon's orders; in 1517 he was made prebendary of Salisbury, and in 1519 dean of Wimborne and of Exeter. When about 19, he was fent to finish his ftudies at Padua in Italy, where he refided fome time in great fplendour, having a handfome penfion from king Henry VIII. He returned to England in 1525, where he was graciously received at court; but preferring ftudy, he retired to the Carthufian convent at Shene, for about two years, when Henry began to divulge his fcruples concerning his marriage with Catharine of Spain. Pole avoided all danger of giving offence, by afking leave to vifit Paris and Italy; and his penfion was continued. The king, having now divorced Q. Catharine, married Anne Boleyn; and being refolved to throw off the papal yoke, ordered Dr Sampfon to write a book in justification of his conduct, which

he fent to Pole for his opinion. To this Pole, fecure in the pope's protection, wrote a fcurrilous anfwer, entitled, Pro Unitate Ecclefiaftica, and fent it to the king; who was fo offended, that he withdrew his penfion and all his preferments, and procured an act of attainder to be paffed against him. In the mean time, Pole was created a cardinal, and fent nuncio to different parts of Europe. At length the pope fixed him as legate at Viterbo, where he continued till 1543, when he was ap pointed legate at the council of Trent, and was afterwards employed by the pope as his chiel counsellor. Pope Paul III. dying in 1549, Pole was twice elected his fucceffor, and twice refused. On the acceffion of Q. Mary in 1553, Pole was fent legate to England, where he was received with great veneration, and conducted to the arch bishop's palace at Lambeth, Cranmer being then prifoner in the Tower. The day after the execu tion of Cranmer, he was confecrated archbishop of Canterbury. In the fame year, 1556, he was elected chancellor of the university of Oxford, and foon after of Cambridge, both which he vifted, by his commiffioners. He died of a double quar tan ague, in 1558, about 16 hours after the death of the queen, and was buried in the cathedral of Canterbury. He feems to have been a man of mild manners, and of real worth, though un doubtedly a zealous member of the church of Rome. He wrote De Ecclefie Poteftate, A Treatise on Juftification, and various other tracts.

(2.) POLE. n. f. {polus, Latin; pole, French, 1. The extremity of the axis of the earth; either of the points on which the world turns.— From the centre thrice to the utmost pole.

From pole to pole

The forky lightnings flash.

Milten

Dryden

2. [Pole, Sax. pal, pau, Fr. palo, Italian and Spa nifh; palus, Latin.] A long ftaff.-A long pole, ftruck upon gravel at the bottom of the water, maketh a found. Bacon.

After fome diftinguish'd leap,

He drops his pole, and seems to flip. Prior. He ordered to arm long poles with fharp books, wherewith they took hold of the tackling which held the mainyard to the maft. Arbuthnot. 3. A tall piece of timber erected.→

The foldier's pole is fallen.

Shak

We'll have thee, as our rarer monsters are, Painted upon a pole, and underwrit, Here may you fee the tyrant.

Shak

Their houfes poles fet round, meeting together in the top, and covered with skins. Heylyn. 4. A measure of length, containing five yards and an half. This ordinance of tithing them by the pole is not only fit for the gentlemen, but also the noblemen. Spenfer.-Every pole fquare of mud, Is inches deep, is worth fix-pence a pole to fling out. Mortimer. 5. An inftrument of measuring-A peer of the realm and a counsellor of ftate are not to be measured by the common yard, but by the pole of fpecial grace. Bacon.

(3.) POLE, in aftronomy, that point in the hea vens round which the whole sphere feems to turn. It is alfo ufed for a point directly perpendicular to the centre of any circle's plane, and distant from it by the length of a radius.

(4.) POLL,