This is particularly the case when the uniting races are far apart on the scale of civilization. Probably the best mongrels are those formed by such fusion as that of the Chinese with the natives of the Malay Archipelago, as, for instance, the Chinese mestizos of the Philippines. The mixture on the grand scale of Spanish and Indian blood in Central and South America cannot be said to have been a success in its results, if we judge by the past and present of the Spanish American republics. We do not reckon the mulattoes of this country as an important element of our national strength. It is often said that the cross-races combine the bad points of the two constituents and lack the good points of both; this is doubtless too strong, but it is a fact that past experience affords little ground for believing that progress in the development of the tropics can be much furthered by the attempt to produce a mixed race.

179. Non-development of the tropics. It should also be stated that, even under a system of beneficent slavery, no development of the tropics at all comparable with that of the temperate zone was attained. The inefficiency of slave labor has been often described; where the civilized man could work and reproduce his kind, i.e. in the temperate or cool zones, it could never compete with free labor. This is one of the chief reasons for the non-development of slavery in temperate regions, and for the growth there of an ethical sentiment which finally secured its universal abolition. The case is briefly this: the slave has no personal incentive; of a consequence his labor is halfhearted and unintelligent, depending for its effectiveness upon constant supervision and incitement. Some races, notably the American, have refused to submit to slavery, at least to that of the "plantation" type; the Indians preferred death to such servitude. The only race which has ever generally submitted to the system is the negro race. But even the most docile of the negroes, whose light-hearted, childlike characters, as well as their strong bodies and constitutions adapted to tropical conditions, seem to have marked them out as destined to serve their conquerors, never constituted a reliable, productive body at all able to equal the achievements of free white labor in the cooler regions. The very qualities which made them better slaves constituted antitheses to the disposition which animated the creators of the world's civilization and trade; for the latter have been characterized by persistence, self-denial, foresight, and so on.

Thus, taking the tropics as a whole, they have not been and do not seem likely soon to be drawn into full participation in the world's civilization, and, more specifically, in its production and exchange. One

partial exception must, however, be noted. Some of the tropical races, as we have seen, were able to furnish a substitute labor supply to countries whose natives were, for reasons just mentioned, unavailable (§ 175). These peoples (chiefly from India and Java) stand upon a stage of civilization considerably in advance of that of other tropical peoples. This is manifested in part by a better developed system of government, or subordination to rules. The result of this subordination has been that the peoples in question have been for ages under a system of compulsory labor for their chiefs. For this and other reasons they have evolved a more laborious disposition than that of the other tropical peoples, more foresight, and a more developed desire for accumulation. To a certain degree, therefore, they form an exception to the generalization that tropical peoples will not voluntarily cooperate in the economic development of the tropics. Unquestionably, India has entered very genuinely into world-commerce. However, it seems likely that the effectiveness of the activity of such peoples has been exaggerated; indeed, one of the objections to the coolie system (§ 177) was that the results were not proportionate to the effort, expenditure, and political dangers involved. The generalization regarding the economic ineffectiveness of the tropical peoples, despite partial exceptions, still holds; there seems to be little hope at present of adequately developing these regions at the hands of the natives or of the whites.

One other present possibility, however, exists. It has been seen that some of the members of the other race of temperate regions the Mongolian-adapt themselves with slight inconvenience to a variety of climates. The Chinese have made effective coolies and are now the best free-labor force applicable to the development of the hot regions. They have to a marked degree the qualities to be desired -laboriousness, frugality, foresight, etc. — and, at the same time, intelligence and a business sense. Where there exists an at all available native labor supply, these Asiatics are found to be the best of overseers, for they understand the condition of the native better and are not often physically incapacitated, as are the whites. The same may bé said of the Japanese, although their activities along these lines have been much more restricted. Unfortunately for the economic present of the tropics, however, strong prejudice, partially justifiable and mainly not, has existed and still exists against the Chinese. They are hated, as the Jews have been hated, because of their successes; because of their oppression as money lenders, etc.; because they are clannish and have no "public spirit," wishing only to gather wealth and return home;

and because, as some have maintained, with, as it seems, but slight justification, they are, according to modern standards, highly immoral. With the discussion of these questions we have nothing to do; the actual status of the case is that few tropical countries are likely soon to be developed through Chinese labor. We therefore return again to our conviction that the tropics enter but slightly into the worldcommerce, because they are as yet, and must long remain, regions of little or no civilization.

180. Types of the agents of trade. The general topic of the chapter having been, then, the distribution of the human race upon the basis of its civilization, we may distinguish, in a general way, several types; our prominent criteria are climatic environment and degree of isolation. The types are four in number, and are very uneven as respects numerical representation: (1) The type represented by those races of the temperate zone, which, by reason of favorable situation, have been enabled to develop, compare, borrow, and accumulate civilization; these are the inhabitants of western and southern Europe, of southern Canada and most of the United States, of Japan and of southern Australasia. (2) That more backward or undeveloped type represented by the inhabitants of isolated areas of temperate regions: eastern Europe; interior of Canada and Mexico; Alaska; China; southern Siberia; western Asia; southern Africa; southern Brazil; Argentina and environs, and Chile; interior of Australia. (3) The fairly productive tropical or subtropical type: northern Africa; West Indies; coast regions of Brazil; Polynesia; Malay Archipelago; India; Farther India. (4) The peoples of as yet unavailable regions of extreme heat and cold. The combinations of the above-mentioned criteria are as follows: in (1), favorable climate and non-isolation; in (2), favorable climate with isolation; in (3), unfavorable climate and modified isolation; in (4), unfavorable climate and extreme isolation. The element of isolation tends to pass away with the development of means of communication, while the climatic element is, so far as our knowledge goes, permanent; thus (2) tends to pass into (1) and disappear.

CHAPTER XI

NATURE OF TRADE. ITS ROUTES AND STATIONS

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181. Specialization and coöperation. After having in preceding pages considered the influence of typical environmental conditions upon man and his civilization, we have been enabled roughly to indicate the geography of trade as determined by the human factor — by man, the producer, purveyor, and consumer. Returning now to the characteristic power of reaction upon environment shown by human societies (§§ 139-141), we wish to exhibit trade itself as a form of such reaction, that is, as an expedient in the struggle for existence and for higher standards of living.

If every person made entire provision for his own wants, there would be no reason for the existence of trade, as between individuals; if every limited group of men were similarly self-sufficient, there would be no reason for trade between groups; if nations and races wanted articles of local production only, there could be no international or world trade. The very existence of trade implies varieties of wants and varieties of want-supplying occupations, distributed in no strict correspondence with each other among individuals, groups, and peoples. That which leads to this lack of self-sufficiency in individuals or societies is an evolved economy of effort, as represented by division of labor or differentiation of function. In the case of individuals, all this means that each producer shall bring forth that which he can produce with the least pain and effort, or with the most satisfaction to himself; also, that through continued practice in the same occupation he may, as a result of experience and the concentration of attention, become progressively more expert in his occupation, that is, develop a better product at a constantly decreasing cost of material, energy, and time. If we all had to make our own shoes, clothing, hats, etc., we should, as we say, waste a great deal of time and force for, on the average, very poor results. Suppose A, B, C, and D made severally their own weapons, tools, clothing, and shelters. Let x be a unit of energy, and suppose each expends 25r a year in making weapons, and 25r each in making tools, clothing, and houses. The

total for each individual would be then 100r. Now if each could choose one specialty and neglect the other three, in the course of events he would gain dexterity, skill, and experience. Perhaps 20x concentrated would suffice to do what 25r scattered had done. If so, and if one unit of each of the four classes of products could be exchanged on even terms for one unit of any of the others, the annual expenditure of energy per specializing person would be 80r instead of 100r, and at the same time the quality of the product would steadily improve. The 20.r saved might be used for a number of purposes, tending to increase present comfort or augment future power over nature. This represents a great advantage in the struggle for existence. The Jack-of-all-trades is an interesting rather than a useful member of society; Robinson Crusoe's outfit was picturesque in its setting, and well adapted to its purpose, considering the difficulties under which he is reported to have labored, but, as compared with the products of specialized and skilled industry, Crusoe's tools, clothing, and other possessions were extremely crude, and were produced at a great expenditure of time and energy.

The economy of effort secured by a division of labor may be, likewise, of the greatest importance to a group or society of men as well as to the individual. Suppose that A, B, C, and D constitute a group, and that each member supplies himself with food, clothing, shelter, and tools, spending an annual effort represented by y in the process. The total expenditure of the group would then be 4y a year. If, now, the several occupations were divided among the workers of the group, each would learn by practice and experience to perform his specialty with greater ease and skill; he would save effort represented, say, by z. The expenditure of effort for the group, then, would be reduced by 45. The greater the specialization and acquired skill, the greater would ≈ become. Also, taking y to represent expenditure of time (instead of effort), the same result would emerge; instead of an original expenditure of 4 we should find a lowered one of 41-43. But the 4% of time or energy not absolutely required for creature-wants represents the possibility of leisure, reflection, invention, and a number of other factors of prime importance in the development of civilization. Such economy, being as distinct an advantage in the struggle for existence as the power to put forth more force, would speedily become an object of selection; or, looked at in another way, it would soon be discovered by the adaptive human mind, and put into operation (§§ 135, 139). The very lowest tribes of men, and even some of the animals, have long practiced it on a more or less reduced scale.