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Before the English gained a footing in Ireland, the kingdom of Cork was a separate sovereignty, embracing much of the present province of Munster. It was divided into Desmond, or South Munster, Muskerry, or West Munster, and Carbery, on the S. W. In 1172 Dermod Mac Carthy, king of Cork, with the view of aggrandizing himself by the aid of so powerful an ally, swore fealty to Henry II., but soon afterward broke his plight and attacked his liege's forces. He was overpowered, and Henry, in 1177, bestowed the kingdom on Robert Fitz Stephen and Milo de Cogan. Cogan's share, falling ultimately to co-heiresses, was divided between Robert Carew, Patrick Courcey, and Maurice Fitz Thomas. The last was created by the English monarch 1st earl of Desmond in 1329. By aggressions on the lands of Courcey and Carew, and by other acquisitions, the estates of the Desmonds so increased that the 8th earl was possessor of almost the whole of the former kingdom of Cork. This earl exercised rights of sovereignty with such a high hand that he was attainted of treason, and beheaded at Drogheda, Feb. 15, 1467. His estates, being suffered to remain in his family, continued to augment until Gerald, the last earl, owned a territory extending 150 miles through the counties of Waterford, Cork, Kerry, and Limerick, and comprising 500,000 acres of tenants' land. These earls never yielded more than a nominal allegiance to the English crown. One of them in the reign of Henry VIII. agreed with Francis I. of France that he would take up arms when required, and not lay them down till he had conquered one half of Ireland for himself and the remainder for Richard de la Pole, the representative of the house of York. Francis withdrew from the agreement, leaving the earl to explain it to his sovereign as he best might. The country of the Desmonds was Irish in language, habits, and religion. Hence it was deemed a favorable locality by Philip II. of Spain, in the days of Queen Elizabeth, to attempt the conquest of Ireland. Accordingly, on July 1, 1578, a body of Italian troops, under the command of James Fitz Maurice, brother of the earl of Desmond, and accompanied by Saunders, the pope's legate, landed in the Desmond country, where they were immediately joined by Sir John of Desmond and James Fitzgerald, other brothers of the earl. At first Earl Desmond made some show of resistance, but subsided at length into neutrality. On this, Lord Justice Pelham summoned him to surrender his castles to the queen. Desmond refused, whereon he and all of his name were proclaimed traitors, Nov. 1, 1579. Desmond now raised the standard of revolt, summoned his people to meet him at Ballyhowra, Cork, to support the Catholic cause, and his dependants responded to the call. He seized on the town of Youghal, and until Nov. 1583, maintained a determined warfare. Being by that time driven from his strongholds, one after another, he was compelled to seek safety in concealment. He wandered over the coun

try for months, and was at last killed by a peasant named Kelly, in a cabin where he had taken shelter. His estates were divided among the captains of Elizabeth's army. Sir Walter Raleigh received 20,000 acres, which he sold cheaply to Richard Boyle, afterward earl of Cork.-JEANNE FITZGERALD, wife of James, 14th earl, lived to an age exceeding 140 years. Her husband presented her at the court of Edward IV., where she danced with the duke of Glouces tor, afterward Richard III.; she was widowed during the reign of Edward IV., and died in the reign of James I., some time after 1603. At the age of 140 she travelled from her home at Inchiquin, Ireland, by the way of Bristol, to London, to urge some claim against the government. At that time she was quite vivacious and in possession of all her faculties. Sir Walter Raleigh says: "I myself knew her." ("History of the World," book i., cap. 5.) Bacon mentions that the old countess of Desmond had thrice renewed her teeth.

DESMOULINS, BENOÎT CAMILLE, & French revolutionist, born at Guise in Picardy in 1762, guillotined in Paris, April 5, 1794. He was a lawyer in Paris when the revolution broke out; he ardently adopted its principles, and became one of the favorite orators of the crowd which gathered at the palais royal to hear the news of the day. On the dismissal of Necker, July 12, 1789, he mounted a table and in an impassioned speech called the people to the defence of their threatened liberty; he boldly declared that he would not be deterred from speaking by fear of the police, and with a loaded pistol in each hand, swore that he would not be taken alive. He advised the patriots to wear a green badge as a rallying sign, and as there was not a sufficient quantity of ribbon, he gave them the green leaves of the trees in the garden. The cry "To arms!" was raised; the crowd seized upon all the arms they could find at the gunsmiths', and forming in procession, carried through the streets the bust of the dismissed minister in conjunction with that of the then popular duke of Orleans. The next day the muskets and cannon at the Invalides fell into the hands of the people, and on July 14 the Bastile was taken. Camille, who had given the first, if not the controlling impulse to this insurrec tion, figured conspicuously among the combatants, and at once gained popularity as one of the most influential democratic leaders. His popularity was enhanced by a pamphlet, La lanterne aux Parisiens, in which he styled himself the "attorney-general of the lamp-post.” The success of this publication encouraged him to commence, under the title of Les révolutions de France et de Brabant, a newspaper which commanded a large sale and exercised great influence by its vigor of thought, sparkling wit and lively style. Such was the importance of this periodical, that Mirabeau sought to conciliate its editor, whom he soon treated as a friend, and whose support was not useless to the great tribune. Camille had been a schoolmate of Robes

DESMOULINS

pierre, and lived on intimate terms with the future dictator of the revolution, who was then but an obscure member of the constituent assembly. He was also acquainted with Marat, the epileptic editor of L'Ami du peuple; but his bosom friend was Danton, whose energetic character entirely controlled the somewhat wavering mind of the young and brilliant writer. The destinies of both were closely connected from the establishment of the club of the Cordeliers. Camille was instrumental in the insurrection of Aug. 10, 1792, and was appointed secretary to the ministry of justice when Danton received that office from the legislative assembly. He must have had a share in the massacre of September, but he used his influence to preserve the lives of several intended victims. With Danton, he was elected to the national convention, and acted and voted in accordance with his friend's directions. In the contest between the Girondists and the Montagnards, he contributed to bring the former into distrust and contempt by his Histoire des Brissotins, a pamphlet in which ridicule was skillfully blended with serious charges. Satisfied with their fall as a party, he would have saved them individually, but this was beyond his power. Both he and Danton now tried to bring the convention to a milder policy, and Camille established a journal toward the end of Jan. 1794, Le vieux Cordelier, in which he advocated conciliatory measures with as much earnestness as he had urged a contrary course in his former publication. His eloquent pen shone to advantage in the cause of justice and mercy. Denouncing the system of proscription, he demanded the establishment of a committee of clemency as a preliminary step to clearing the prisons of the suspected. This generous effort, which he supported by biting satires against the Montagnards, was answered by accusations brought against him in the club of the Jacobins. Robespierre, with hypocritical generosity toward an old friend, defended him on two occasions; he represented Camille as a wayward child, whose person it was not necessary to injure, but demanded that his writings should be burned. "To burn is not to answer," exclaimed the headlong journalist; and from that day his fate was sealed. He was arrested on the same night with Danton, arraigned with him before the revolutionary tribunal, sentenced to death, and with him sent to the scaffold. On his way there, while Danton stood composed and immovable, Camille became almost frantic, struggling with his bonds, and appealing to the people. His friend vainly motioned him to keep quiet; he continued to address the crowd, and recalled to their memory all that he had done in their service. "Behold," he cried in despair, "behold the recompense reserved to the first apostle of the revolution!" His young and beautiful wife, who had vainly implored his pardon from the old friendship of Robespierre, tried to raise a riot to save him, but she was arrested, and suffered death a few days later. Camille Desmoulins holds a distinguished rank

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among French pamphleteers. His Vieux Cordelier was reprinted in 1833.

DESNA, a large river of Russia, which rises in the government of Smolensk, flows through. those of Orel and Tchernigov, and falls into the Dnieper a few miles above Kiev. It is a fine stream, abounding in fish, and navigable for the greater part of its course of 600 m. It has been proposed to open a water communication between the Caspian and the Black and Baltic seas by means of a canal connecting this river with the river Oka.

DESNOYERS, AUGUSTE GASPARD LOUIS BOUCHER, baron, a French engraver, born in Paris, Dec. 20, 1779, died there, Feb. 15, 1857. At the age of 20 he received a prize of $400 for an engraving of Venus disarming Cupid, and in 1801 established his reputation by the reproduction of Raphael's Belle jardinière, in the gallery of the Luxembourg. His most admired productions are copies of that great master's works, and prominent among them is an engraving of the Transfiguration." He was elected a member of the institute in 1816, appointed chief engraver to the king in 1825, created baron in 1828, and officer of the legion of honor in 1835.

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DE SOTO. I. A N. W. co. of Miss., bordering on Tenn., and bounded N. W. by the Mississippi river; area, 960 sq. m.; pop. in 1850, 19,042, of whom 9,553 were slaves. The surface is generally level, and occupied chiefly by cotton plantations. There are extensive swamps in the western part. The soil is fertile, and in 1850 produced 20,278 bales of cotton, 741,519 bushels of corn, 10,272 lbs. of rice, and 32,907 of beeswax and honey. There were 22 churches, and 416 pupils attending public schools. The county was organized in 1836. Capital, Hernando. II. A N. W. parish of Louisiana, bordering on Texas, drained by Red and Sabine rivers; area, 910 sq. m.; pop. in 1855, 9,703, of whom 5,939 were slaves. By means of Red river it has steamboat communication with New Orleans. In 1855 the productions were 9,361 bales of cotton, and 340,034 bushels of Indian corn. Capital, Mansfield.

DE SOTO, FERNANDO, a Spanish officer, the discoverer of the Mississippi, born at Xeres de los Caballeros, in Estremadura, in 1500, died on the banks of the Mississippi, June 5, 1542. Of a noble but reduced family, he was enabled by the favor of Pedrarias Davila to spend several years at one of the universities, probably that of Saragossa, and distinguished himself in literary studies, and especially in the athletic accomplishments of knighthood. In 1519 he accompanied his patron on his second expedition to America as governor of Darien, and was the most intrepid opponent of the oppressive administration of that officer. He supported Hernandez in Nicaragua in 1527, who perished by the hand of Davila, in consequence of not heeding his advice. Withdrawing from the service of Davila, he explored in 1528 the coast of Guatemala and Yucatan for 700 m., in search of the strait which was

supposed to connect the two oceans. It was by special request of Pizarro in 1532 that De Soto joined him in his enterprise for conquering Peru, with the promise of being appointed second in command. Being sent in 1533, with 50 horsemen and a few targeteers, to explore the highlands of Peru, he encountered and defeated 2,000 Indians, penetrated through a pass in the mountains, and discovered the great national road which led to the Peruvian capital, and was soon after selected by Pizarro to visit the inca Atahuallpa as ambassador. After the plot for the capture of the inca had proved successful, and the latter had paid an immense sum for ransom, De Soto in vain expostulated with Pizarro for treacherously refusing to release the Peruvian monarch. He was prominent in the engagements which completed the conquest of Peru, and was the hero of the battle which resulted in the capture of the metropolis, Cuzco. He soon after returned to Spain with a fortune of $500,000; met a flattering reception from the emperor Charles V., made a splendid display at court, and married the daughter of Davila, the object of an early attachment. In 1536 the belief was entertained that in the vast region then called Florida was a new El Dorado, richer than any that had been discovered. Of this faith De Soto became the martyr. He proposed to the emperor to undertake the conquest of Florida at his own expense; and the privilege being conceded to him, many Spanish and Portuguese cavaliers were ambitious to enroll themselves among his followers. With 600 men, the flower of the peninsula, exclusive of 24 ecclesiastics and 20 officers, he set sail from San Lucar early in April, 1538. After stopping at Santiago de Cuba, and then at Havana, where it was decided that the ladies attached to the expedition should remain till after the conquest of Florida, he crossed the gulf of Mexico, and anchored in the bay of Spiritu Santo (Tampa bay), May 25, 1539. His route was through a country already made hostile by the violence of the Spanish invader Narvaez, and he was constantly deluded by the Indians, whose policy it was to send their unwelcome visitors as far away as possible by telling them of gold regions at remote points. In July, 1539, he sent back all his ships to Havana. He discovered a Spaniard, Juan Ortiz, who had been in slavery from the time of Narvaez, and who now served as his interpreter. He passed the first winter in the country of the Appalachians, E. of the Flint river. Directed then to the N. E., he reached in April, 1540, the Ogeechee; thence proceeding to the S., he reached the Coosa, and on Oct. 18 the village of Mavilla or Mobile, on the Alabama. The engagement which ensued here was one of the most sanguinary battles ever fought between Europeans and the North American Indians; the loss of the Spaniards was 80 men and 42 horses; that of the Indians was reported at 2,500 men. Ships had meantime arrived at Ochus (Pensacola), but De Soto proudly refused to send back any message of his fortunes.

He passed the second winter in the country of the Chickasaws, who in the spring burned his camp and their own village, when he attempted to force them to carry his baggage. Forty Spaniards perished in the flames, and in the night attack. Soon after beginning his march to the N. W., a pestilential fever carried off nearly a score of his men. He reached the Mississippi after journeying for 7 days through a wilderness of forests and marshes, was nearly a month in constructing 8 large barges to transport his army, and having crossed the river went N. to Pacaha, where he remained from June 19 till July 29. Thence he marched successively S. W. and N. W. till he reached the highlands of the White river, in the eastern portion of what is now the Indian territory. This was the western limit of his rambles. He then proceeded S. by the hot springs of Arkansas, which his companions at first supposed to be the fabled fountain of youth, and made his third winter station at Autiamque on the Washita river. In March and April, 1542, he continued S. along the Washita to the Mississippi, and while in vain attempting to descend the banks of the latter, through the bayous and marshes, he was attacked with a malignant fever, and died, after appointing Luis de Moscoso his successor. "His soldiers," says Bancroft, "pronounced his eulogy by grieving for their loss; the priests chanted over his body the first requiems that were ever heard on the waters of the Mississippi. To conceal his death, his body was wrapped in a mantle, and, in the stillness of midnight, was silently sunk in the middle of the stream. The wanderer had crossed a large part of the continent in search of gold, and found nothing so remarkable as his burial place." His followers, reduced more than onehalf in number, venturing E., were driven backward to the river, where they passed the next winter. In the spring of 1543 they embarked in 7 boats, and after nearly 3 months the survivors reached the Mexican town of Panuco, now in the department of Vera Cruz, where they dispersed. The wife of De Soto expired at Havana on the third day after learning his fate.-A history of his life and travels, by L. A. Wilmer, was published at Philadelphia in 1858.

DESPARD, EDWARD MARCUS, an Irish soldier, beheaded in London, March 21, 1803. He was a native of Queen's co., Ireland, a soldier in the West Indies, and superintendent of the English colony in Honduras. In consequence of complaints made against him he was recalled in 1790, but he could never procure an examination into his administration. This made him disaffected, and he was arrested for seditions conduct, but after his liberation he was only the more inflamed. He seduced some of the soldiers, and matured a plan to assassinate the king on his way to open parliament. The conspirators were arrested and tried by special commission at Southwark, Feb. 5, 1803. There being no doubt of their guilt, Despard and 9 of his as sociates suffered death.

DES PLAINES, or AUX PLAINES (Indian

DESSAIX

appellation, She-shik-mah-o), a river of Illinois, rising in the S. E. part of Wisconsin, flowing S. and S. W., and uniting with the Kankakee at Dresden, to form the Illinois. It is about 150 m. long, and derives its name from a species of maple called by the French plaine.

DESSAIX, JOSEPH MARIE, a French general, born in Thonon, Savoy, Sept. 24, 1764, died Oct. 26, 1834. He was a physician at Paris, and in 1791 returned to his native country to diffuse democratic principles and organize a corps of volunteers. He served at the siege of Toulon, and in Italy under Bonaparte; was elected in 1798 to the council of 500, where he opposed the coup d'état of the 18th Brumaire; made a brigadier-general by Bonaparte in 1803, and, in the campaign of 1809 against Austria, a general of division, receiving from the emperor the surname of L'intrépide, and the title of count of the empire. Being wounded during the expedition to Russia, he was put in command of the city of Berlin, and in 1813 was intrusted with the defence of France on the line of the Alps. In 1814 he was kindly treated by the Bourbons, notwithstanding which he joined the standard of Napoleon after his landing at Cannes, and was imprisoned for 6 months in 1816. Af ter the revolution of 1830, he was elected commander of the national guards at Lyons.

DESSALINES, JEAN JACQUES, emperor of Hayti under the name of Jean Jacques I., born about 1760, killed Oct. 17, 1806. He was a native of Guinea, and when a boy he was sold to a French planter whose name he adopted. On the revolt of 1791, Dessalines joined the insurgent army, and by energy and shrewdness, though entirely uneducated, soon obtained a prominent position. He became adjutant-general of the negro commander Jean François, who united his forces with those of the Spaniards against the French; and when Toussaint L'Ouverture suddenly left his Spanish allies and went over to the French side, Dessalines adhered to his fortunes. Having been raised to the rank of lieutenantgeneral, he led a successful campaign against the mulatto chief Rigaud. The promptness and energy evinced in this movement recommended him to Toussaint, who thenceforward always sent him where the utmost severity was considered necessary. His name spread terror wherever he went. Thousands of mulattoes were slaughtered, drowned, or shot by his orders. At the same time he led a most dissolute life, and enriched himself by extensive robberies perpetrated in the guise of legal confiscations. When Napoleon sent his brother-in-law, Leclerc, to reconquer Hayti, Dessalines conducted a bloody guerrilla war against the French, to which history scarcely furnishes a parallel. One of his most remarkable feats was the obstinaté defence of the town of St. Marc against Gen. Boudet. When unable to hold the town any longer, he burned it down, himself setting fire to his own palace, butchered all the white inhabitants of the place, and likewise all whom he fell in with on his retreat. Peace having been made

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in 1802, by Christophe, Dessalines became a French general and governor of the southern portion of the island. Here he plunged once more into debauchery, but at the same time he intrigued against Toussaint, and, it is believed, secretly betrayed him. When Toussaint's nephew Belair rose against the tyranny of the French, Dessalines treacherously enticed him by promises of assistance, and had him murdered in cold blood with 300 of his followers. But his loyalty to the French was of short duration. Rochambeau, having succeeded Leclerc in the chief command of the French army of occupation, vied in bloodthirstiness with the savage negroes. Among others, he tortured to death the negro general Maurepas and his whole family. Dessalines resolved upon a terrible retribution. He erected 500 gibbets, and hung half a regiment of French whom he had captured by a bold countermarch. A brief war of extermination followed, and in Dec. 1803, aided by an English squadron, he definitively expelled the French from Hayti. In Jan. 1804, the army elected him governor-general of the new republic. For a few months he ruled in a spirit of moderation, and took some wise and just measures toward a healthy reorganization of the commonwealth. But soon his brutal nature prevailed over his judgment, and he returned to his favorite occupation of exterminating the whites. In April, 1804, he made an unsuccessful attempt to conquer the Spanish portion of the island, and after his return he became more frantic than ever. In imitation of Napoleon, he assumed the imperial crown (Dec. 8, 1804), and proclaimed a new constitution, which concentrated all real power in his own hands. A number of organic laws followed, most of them judicious, but inefficient, since his recklessness and eccentricities, bordering on absolute lunacy, frustrated their execution. His extravagance deranged the finances, his dissoluteness corrupted the morals of all classes. Beside his legitimate wife, he kept 20 concubines, who drew their salary from the public treasury. His thirst for blood became more and more insatiable. Suspicious of traitors and assassins, he put to death every one whom he supposed to have any independence of character. At last some of his generals entered into a conspiracy against him, and, entrapping him into an ambuscade, cut him to pieces. Of all fiends in human form who have obtained a place in history, Dessalines was undoubtedly one of the most remarkable. In a slender and hideous frame he united the wildest passions of the ferocious savage with extraordinary shrewdness, an undeniable keenness of judgment, and a clear statesmanlike knowledge of the men and things he had to deal with. However abominable his character may appear, it is nevertheless true that he understood the means of accomplishing the independence of Hayti better than even Toussaint himself. But he left Hayti a ruined and desolate, though an independent state. His widow, to whose influence are ascribed the few acts of forbearance

he exercised toward the whites, died in Gonaives, Aug. 8, 1858, at a very advanced age. DESSAU, or DESSAW, the capital of the German duchy of Anhalt-Dessau, on the river Mulde, 2 m. from its junction with the Elbe, and on the Berlin and Leipsic railway, 67 m. S. W. from Berlin; pop. 12,000. The ducal residence is large, and has a fine park and a picture gallery. The theatre, the residence of the hereditary prince, the council house, the castle church, the government building, the gymnasium, St. Mary's church with some pictures by Lucas Cranach the younger, and the fine cemetery, are the most attractive features of the town. There are many scientific, artistic, religious, and industrial institutions and societies, a commercial school, a large ducal library, an orthopedic institution, and a bank with a capital of about $2,000,000. The manufactures embrace woollen, linen, and cotton fabrics, musical instruments, hats, leather, and tobacco. An important wool market is held here, and a flourishing trade in grain and other produce is carried on. Moses Mendelssohn, the philosopher, was born here in 1729. Dessau was noted as early as 1213, and in 1313 had a school independent of the church. In the German revolution of 1848 it was one of the most democratic cities of Germany. Its environs are adorned with beautiful gardens, which have been reclaimed from sandy wastes.

DESSOLLES, JEAN JOSEPH PAUL AUGUSTIN, marquis, a French general and statesman, born at Auch, Oct. 3, 1767, died Nov. 4, 1828. Having distinguished himself in Italy under the command of Bonaparte, he was appointed brigadier-general, May 31, 1797. A successful expedition in Valtelina was rewarded, April 13, 1799, with the rank of general of division. After the defeat of the French at Novi, where the commander-in-chief, Joubert, was killed, Dessolles joined the army on the Rhine, then under the command of Moreau, and participated in the two campaigns of 1800. He became attached to his new commander, and from this period a coolness seems to have existed between him and Bonaparte. He was, however, appointed a member of the council of state, and placed for a while in command of the French army in Hanover, but was soon superseded by Bernadotte. In 1808 he commanded a division in Spain. On the fall of Napoleon in 1814, the provisional government appointed him commanderin-chief of the Parisian national guards and the regular troops in the 1st military district. He was present at the meetings of the allied sovereigns at Talleyrand's, to decide upon the government to be given to France. He strenuously opposed the establishment of a regency under Marie Louise, and on the arrival of Count d'Artois he received the title of minister of state, and was appointed major-general of all the national guards of France. When the news of Napoleon's landing at Cannes reached Paris, Dessolles issued energetic orders to interrupt the progress of the usurper, and he retained his command until after the departure of the king

on the morning of March 20, 1815. He then retired to his estate near Paris, where he lived unmolested during the Hundred Days. On the second restoration, he resumed the command of the national guard, but soon gave it up, being unwilling to support the reactionary policy then prevailing. In the chamber of peers he advocated the freedom of the press. On Dec. 28, 1818, he was appointed to the premiership and ministry of foreign affairs, receiving about the same time the title of marquis; but the king having determined that the electoral law of 1817 should be altered, Dessolles resigned his office, but continued to serve as a peer till his death.

DESTERRO, NOSSA SENHORA DO DESTERRO, or SANTA CATHARINA, a city of Brazil, capital of the province of Santa Catharina, on the W. coast of the island of that name; pop. with the adjoining district, 6,000. It has a small but excellent and well fortified harbor, and is the centre of an active commerce, the coffee exported hence bearing a high reputation. Artificial flowers made of fish scales, feathers, beetles' wings, &c., are also important articles of trade. The city has little or no architectural beauty, but is a favorite resort for invalids on account of its salubrious climate.

DESTOUCHES, PHILIPPE HÉRICAULT, ♣ French dramatist, born in Tours in 1680, died July 4, 1754. After leading a somewhat adventurous life, he was hospitably entertained at Lausanne by M. de Puysieux, the French envoy to Switzerland. His first comedy, Le curieuz impertinent, was performed there with great applause, and was scarcely less successful when it appeared at Paris. Some other plays of his, among them L'irrésolu, attracted the attention of the regent duke of Orleans, who appointed him to several missions, the most important being that to London, where in 1717 he accompanied the abbé, afterward cardinal Dubois After his return in 1723, on the sudden death of the regent, he retired to his country seat near Melun, where he wrote a number of comedies, the best of which are Le philosophe marié and Le glorieux, performed with great success in 1727 and 1732. His collected works were published in 1750, in 4 vols. 4to.

DESTUTT DE TRACY, ANTOINE LOUIS CLAUDE, a French philosopher, born at Paray-leFresil, near Moulins, in the province of Bourbonnais, July 20, 1754, died near Paris, March 9, 1836. The descendant of a noble Scottish family, be entered the army, and was a colonel when the revolution broke out. As a deputy to the constituent assembly, he advocated liberal reforms, while adhering to the moderate party. In 1791 he retired to his country seat at Auteuil, and devoted his time to philosophical studies. During the reign of terror he was imprisoned, but liberated after the 9th Thermidor. The consular government appointed him a senator, and he was subsequently created a count of the empire. He published his Éléments d'idéologie in 1801, his Grammaire in 1803, and his Logique in 1805,

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